Amolops torrentis: Difference between revisions
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'''''Amolops torrentis''''' |
'''''Amolops torrentis''''', commonly known as the '''torrent sucker frog''' or the '''little torrent frog''' is a species of [[frog]] in the family [[True frog|Ranidae]] and genus [[Amolops]] that is [[Endemism|endemic]] to China, specifically only on the island of [[Hainan]]. <ref name="frost">{{cite web |author=Frost, Darrel R. |year=2014 |title=''Amolops torrentis'' (Smith, 1923) |url=http://research.amnh.org/vz/herpetology/amphibia/Amphibia/Anura/Ranidae/Amolops/Amolops-torrentis |accessdate=18 February 2014 |work=Amphibian Species of the World: an Online Reference. Version 6.0 |publisher=American Museum of Natural History}}</ref> |
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== Description == |
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''Amolops torrentis'' live in medium- to large-sized streams (where they also breed) and in the surrounding riparian habitats. It is threatened by [[habitat loss]], particularly due to agricultural activities.<ref name="iucn status 15 November 2021" /> |
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''A. torrentis'' has sexual size dimorphism, with females of the species tending to be larger than males of the species (adult females have snout-ventral lengths of less than 42 mm, while adult males have snout-ventral lengths of less than 35 mm).<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Zeng |first=Zhao-Chi |last2=Wang |first2=Jian |last3=Lyu |first3=Zhi-Tong |last4=Wang |first4=Ying-Yong |date=2021-07-19 |title=A new species of Torrent frog (Anura, Ranidae, Amolops) from the Coastal Hills of Southeastern China |url=https://mapress.com/zt/article/view/zootaxa.5004.1.6 |journal=Zootaxa |language=en |volume=5004 |issue=1 |pages=151–166 |doi=10.11646/zootaxa.5004.1.6 |issn=1175-5334}}</ref> |
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A. torrentis contains multiple characteristics that distinguish it from other members of the Amolops genus that also exist in China and southeast Asia. One of these is that A. torrentis has tarsal glands. <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lyu |first=Zhi-Tong |last2=Wu |first2=Jun |last3=Wang |first3=Jian |last4=Sung |first4=Yik-Hei |last5=Liu |first5=Zu-Yao |last6=Zeng |first6=Zhao-Chi |last7=Wang |first7=Xin |last8=Li |first8=You-Yu |last9=Wang |first9=Ying-Yong |date=2018-05-11 |title=A new species of Amolops (Anura: Ranidae) from southwestern Guangdong, China |url=https://biotaxa.org/Zootaxa/article/view/zootaxa.4418.6.4 |journal=Zootaxa |volume=4418 |issue=6 |pages=562 |doi=10.11646/zootaxa.4418.6.4 |issn=1175-5334}}</ref> A. torrentis also has a distinct tympanum edge and a tibio-tarsal articulation reaching beyond the snout when the back limbs are adpressed. <ref name=":0" /> Individuals of this species also have a distinct glandular ridge (also known as a dorsolateral fold of skin) under the tarsus and smooth bumps on the back, along with a circummarginal groove at the tip of the first finger. <ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Inger |first=Robert |last2=Kottelat |first2=Maurice |date=1998 |title=A NEW SPECIES OF RANID FROG FROM LAOS |url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Maurice-Kottelat/publication/237470177_A_new_species_of_ranid_frog_from_Laos/links/54ab01e50cf2ce2df668d7bf/A-new-species-of-ranid-frog-from-Laos.pdf |journal=The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages=29-34 |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Liu |first=Wanzhao |last2=Yang |first2=Datong |last3=Ferraris |first3=Carl |last4=Matsui |first4=Masafumi |date=2000-05 |title=Amolops bellulus: A New Species of Stream-Breeding Frog from Western Yunnan, China (Anura: Ranidae) |url=https://bioone.org/journals/copeia/volume-2000/issue-2/0045-8511_2000_000_0536_ABANSO_2.0.CO_2/Amolops-bellulus--A-New-Species-of-Stream-Breeding-Frog/10.1643/0045-8511(2000)000[0536:ABANSO]2.0.CO;2.full |journal=Copeia |volume=2000 |issue=2 |pages=536–541 |doi=10.1643/0045-8511(2000)000[0536:ABANSO]2.0.CO;2 |issn=0045-8511}}</ref> Males of the species also possess a pair of subgular vocal sacs that are white colored. |
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''Amolops torrentis'' are relatively small frogs: males grow to a snout–vent length of about {{convert|30|mm|abbr=on}} and females to about {{convert|37|mm|abbr=on}}. [[Tadpole]]s are up to {{convert|35|mm|abbr=on}} in length.<ref>{{cite book |title=Atlas of Amphibians of China |last=Fei |first=L. |year=1999 |publisher=Henan Press of Science and Technology |location=Zhengzhou | language = Chinese |isbn=7-5349-1835-9 |page=246}}</ref> |
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The tadpoles of the species are up to 35 mm in length.<ref>{{cite book |last=Fei |first=L. |title=Atlas of Amphibians of China |publisher=Henan Press of Science and Technology |year=1999 |isbn=7-5349-1835-9 |location=Zhengzhou |page=246 |language=Chinese}}</ref> The tadpoles have a divided upper jaw sheath with 5/3 labial tooth rows.<ref name=":1" /> The tadpoles also have ventral glands.<ref name=":1" /> |
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== Habitat and Distribution == |
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=== Habitat === |
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''A. torrentis'' lives in medium and large streams and the surrounding wetland area. <ref name="iucn status 15 November 2021" /> During the day, individuals of this species usually crouch on rocks near the stream rapids or on stone walls near the waterfalls, but will occasionally stay in the water for brief periods of time and then float on the water surface.<ref name="iucn status 15 November 2021" /> At night, individuals of ''A. torrentis'' can be found on rocks near the streams or on leaves of nearby shrubbery and weeds. |
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Females of ''A. torrentis'' lay eggs at rocky and fast flowing sites in the stream, specifically in holes or openings in the rock piles where the follicles can be anchored to the stones or to nearby soils to prevent the eggs from being washed away.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Zhao |first=Longhui |last2=Zhu |first2=Bicheng |last3=Wang |first3=Jichao |last4=Brauth |first4=Steven E. |last5=Tang |first5=Yezhong |last6=Cui |first6=Jianguo |date=2017-09-01 |title=Sometimes noise is beneficial: stream noise informs vocal communication in the little torrent frog Amolops torrentis |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10164-017-0515-y |journal=Journal of Ethology |language=en |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=259–267 |doi=10.1007/s10164-017-0515-y |issn=1439-5444 |pmc=PMC5711985 |pmid=29225405}}</ref> Tadpoles also inhabit similar locations.<ref name=":2" /> |
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=== Distribution === |
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''A. torrentis'' has only been found on Hainan island in China, in locations that range from 80 to 1000 meters in elevation.<ref name="iucn status 15 November 2021" /> While it has been reported in the Guangdong province of mainland China, these sightings have been disproven and those frogs reclassified into other, related Amolops species. |
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== Conservation == |
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''A. torrentis'' is listed as vulnerable by the IUCN, as last assessed in 2019.<ref name="iucn status 15 November 2021" /> It was given this classification because its area range is only 15,838 km^2, it only occurs in Hainan, and its habitat on Hainan is declining in terms of the extent and quality.<ref name="iucn status 15 November 2021" /> Identified threats to the species include annual and perennial non-wood crops, wood and pulp plantations, logging and wood harvesting, dams and water management, and agricultural and forestry effluents.<ref name="iucn status 15 November 2021" /> Previously, it had been a concern that the construction of hydroelectric plants in Hainan would pose a threat to ''A. torrentis'', but this concern has been alleviated by the fact that the construction of these plants has occurred and no new plants are planned, and no major damage to the species population has been seen.<ref name="iucn status 15 November 2021" /> |
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=== Habitat Loss === |
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In particular, an increase in the number of rubber plantations, along with banana plantations and areca crops are decreasing the size of the forest habitat for ''A. torrentis'' while also polluting the habitat with herbicides and pesticides.<ref name="iucn status 15 November 2021" /> This habitat loss is particularly concerning because ''A. torrentis'' only occurs on the island of Hainan. |
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=== Conservation Efforts === |
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To combat the threat of habitat loss, ''A. torrentis'' is present in several protected areas in Hainan, including nature reserves and forest parks.<ref name="iucn status 15 November 2021" /> In addition, it is also on the "List of Beneficial or of Important Economic or Scientific Value Terrestrial Wild Animals under States Protection", which is under the protection of the "Law of the People's Republic of China on the Protection of Wildlife," providing a degree of protection to the species and also making it illegal to collect.<ref name="iucn status 15 November 2021" /> |
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== Phylogeny == |
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''A. torrentis'' is closely related to other members of the Amolops genus, but it is specifically within the ''A. hainanensis'' group within the genus.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gan |first=Yu-Lu |last2=Yu |first2=Guo-Hua |last3=Wu |first3=Zheng-Jun |date=2020-03-01 |title=A new species of the genus Amolops (Anura: Ranidae) from Yunnan, China |url=https://www.zoores.ac.cn/en/article/doi/10.24272/j.issn.2095-8137.2020.018 |journal=Zoological Research |language=en |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=188–193 |doi=10.24272/j.issn.2095-8137.2020.018 |issn=2095-8137 |pmc=PMC7109019 |pmid=32135580}}</ref> This means ''A. torrentis'' is sister taxa to both ''A. hainanensis'' and ''A. daiyunnensis''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Orlov |first=Nikolai |last2=Murphy |first2=Robert |last3=Liu |first3=Wanzhao |last4=Ngo |first4=Andre |last5=Lathrop |first5=Amy |date=2006-01-01 |title=The Phylogenetic Relationships of the Chinese and Vietnamese Waterfall frogs of the genus Amolops |url=https://brill.com/view/journals/amre/27/1/article-p81_10.xml |journal=Amphibia-Reptilia |language=en |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=81–92 |doi=10.1163/156853806776052010 |issn=1568-5381}}</ref> |
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== Mating == |
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Mating in this species occurs via calling, as calls are transmitted across and around streams.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Zhao |first=Longhui |last2=Wang |first2=Jichao |last3=Yang |first3=Yue |last4=Zhu |first4=Bicheng |last5=Brauth |first5=Steven E. |last6=Tang |first6=Yezhong |last7=Cui |first7=Jianguo |date=2017-01 |title=An exception to the matched filter hypothesis: A mismatch of male call frequency and female best hearing frequency in a torrent frog |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ece3.2621 |journal=Ecology and Evolution |language=en |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=419–428 |doi=10.1002/ece3.2621 |pmc=PMC5216676 |pmid=28070304}}</ref> The call sounds like a sharp and high “squeak, squeak, squeak” as males produce calls that consist of a series of identical repeated notes throughout the day and night during breeding season.<ref name="frost" /><ref name=":3" /> |
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Males of this species change their call frequency in response to noise but not their call intensity or amplitude.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last=Zhao |first=Longhui |last2=Sun |first2=Xiaoqian |last3=Chen |first3=Qinghua |last4=Yang |first4=Yue |last5=Wang |first5=Jichao |last6=Ran |first6=Jianghong |last7=Brauth |first7=Steven E. |last8=Tang |first8=Yezhong |last9=Cui |first9=Jianguo |date=2018-12 |title=Males increase call frequency, not intensity, in response to noise, revealing no Lombard effect in the little torrent frog |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ece3.4625 |journal=Ecology and Evolution |language=en |volume=8 |issue=23 |pages=11733–11741 |doi=10.1002/ece3.4625 |pmc=PMC6303699 |pmid=30598771}}</ref> Researchers investigating this utilized recordings of stream noise to determine how stream noise changes characteristics of male calling.<ref name=":4" /> The lack of an increase in call amplitude with increased background noise is a contradiction to the Lombard hypothesis that animals would increase both their call frequency and their call amplitude in response to noise in the environment, instead supporting the theory that calling with a higher frequency helps prevent their calls from being lost in the background noise.<ref name=":4" /> This may be due to the fact that stream noise (the primary background noise for these frogs) is mainly in lower frequency ranges, so the upward shift in call frequency could be more adaptive than increasing the lowest frequencies.<ref name=":4" /> |
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Females of ''A. torrentis'' prefer higher-frequency calls over lower-frequency calls regardless of background noise levels.<ref name=":3" /> In addition, females prefer calls with high amplitude noise added over calls with low amplitude stream noise added, but stream/background noise is not attractive to females by itself.<ref name=":2" /> This may indicate that stream noise could be used as a cue by females to enhance the attractiveness of calls, as river noise would be associated with the rocks and vegetation of the habitat of A. torrentis and thus help provide information for where best to lay eggs.<ref name=":2" /> |
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However, females of this species likely do not rely only on auditory cues in choosing a partner to mate with. Researchers have found that both auditory cues (male calling) and visual cues (in the form of male vocal-sac inflation) were attractive to female ''A. torrentis'', but the auditory cues were more attractive than visual cues.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Behavioral and Neurogenomic Responses to Acoustic and Visual Sexual Cues are Correlated in Female Torrent Frogs - 中国知网 |url=https://kns.cnki.net/kcms/detail/detail.aspx?doi=10.16373/j.cnki.ahr.200063 |access-date=2022-11-14 |website=kns.cnki.net |doi=10.16373/j.cnki.ahr.200063}}</ref> Males of this species prefer to call from stones in the river that have the same background color as the frog’s body and different than the white color of the vocal sac, so vocal-sac inflation is conspicuous in the environment.<ref name=":5" /> |
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== Enemies == |
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=== Parasites === |
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Individuals of these species suffer from parasitism from blood-sucking parasites like frog-biting midges.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last=Zhao |first=Longhui |last2=Wang |first2=Jichao |last3=Zhang |first3=Haodi |last4=Wang |first4=Tongliang |last5=Yang |first5=Yue |last6=Tang |first6=Yezhong |last7=Halfwerk |first7=Wouter |last8=Cui |first8=Jianguo |date=2022-05-06 |editor-last=Kalan |editor-first=Ammie K |editor2-last=Rutz |editor2-first=Christian |editor3-last=Starnberger |editor3-first=Iris |title=Parasite defensive limb movements enhance acoustic signal attraction in male little torrent frogs |url=https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.76083 |journal=eLife |volume=11 |pages=e76083 |doi=10.7554/eLife.76083 |issn=2050-084X |pmc=PMC9122496 |pmid=35522043}}</ref> These midges are attracted to the acoustic signal given by male members of ''A. torrentis'', which leads to limb movements to defend against these parasites.<ref name=":6" /> The limb movements include toe trembling, hind foot lifting, arm waving, limb shaking, wiping, leg stretching, and foot flagging.<ref name=":6" /> These movements may also be incorporated into a sexual display, as males that display these parasite defensive limb movements are perceived as more attractive by female members of the species.<ref name=":6" /> |
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== Physiology == |
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=== Hearing === |
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Frogs of this species rely on hearing in order to hear the calls that the males produce. The best hearing range for females is 1.6-2 kHz in frequency, and females also prefer higher frequency calls over lower frequency calls regardless of ambient noise levels in the background.<ref name=":3" /> However, the dominant frequency of the calls given by the males is higher in frequency, around 4.3 Hz.<ref name=":3" /> This mismatch is a contradiction to the matched filter hypothesis, which states that the auditory sensitivity/range of animal calls and the actual spectral character/frequency of the calls will match to make courtship calling most efficient.<ref name=":3" /> This contradiction offers support to the hypothesis that ''A. torrentis'' evolved from frogs that did not live near a stream and thus the high-frequency calls evolved in the species due to the selection pressure of noise from nearby streams.<ref name=":3" /> |
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The hearing of individuals of this species is also partially temperature dependent. Measures of auditory brainstem responses to determine auditory sensitivity have shown that both the auditory thresholds are higher and the latencies are longer at colder temperatures as compared to warmer temperatures for calls made at lower frequencies, but this difference in auditory sensitivity due to temperature was not found for higher frequency calls.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last=Sun |first=Xiaoqian |last2=Zhao |first2=Longhui |last3=Chen |first3=Qinghua |last4=Wang |first4=Jichao |last5=Cui |first5=Jianguo |date=2020-11-01 |title=Auditory sensitivity changes with diurnal temperature variation in little torrent frogs (Amolops torrentis) |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/09524622.2019.1662845 |journal=Bioacoustics |volume=29 |issue=6 |pages=684–696 |doi=10.1080/09524622.2019.1662845 |issn=0952-4622}}</ref> This temperature-dependent change in auditory sensitivity indicates that while temperature changes can change auditory sensitivity around the best hearing range for females (lower frequency), they do not impact auditory sensitivity around the female-preferred frequency range (higher frequencies), so these temperature-dependent changes might be adaptive for reproductive behavior in this species.<ref name=":7" /> |
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=== Glands and Toxins === |
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Bradykinin-related proteins (BRPs) have been isolated from the skin of individuals of ''A. torrentis''.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last=Zhang |first=Baowen |last2=Zhang |first2=Xiaoli |last3=Yang |first3=Ying |last4=Hu |first4=Yuhong |last5=Wang |first5=Hui |date=2018-08-01 |title=Identification and Functional Analysis of Novel Bradykinin-Related Peptides (BRPs) from Skin Secretions of Five Asian Frogs |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10930-018-9783-9 |journal=The Protein Journal |language=en |volume=37 |issue=4 |pages=324–332 |doi=10.1007/s10930-018-9783-9 |issn=1875-8355}}</ref> Bradykinin is a powerful endothelium-dependent vasodilator that induces a drop in blood pressure, and the contraction of the bronchi and smooth muscles in the ileum.<ref name=":8" /> Isolated BRPs from ''A. torrentis'' have been shown to have a contractive effect on the smooth muscle of rat ileum in the laboratory setting.<ref name=":8" /> BRPs are thought to play a role in defense against predators, as the contraction in the ileum may stimulate the gastrointestinal system of a predator to cause vomiting and other unpleasant reactions that deters the predator from consuming members of ''A. torrentis'' again.<ref name=":8" /> |
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==References==<!-- Zootaxa 1531: 49 --> |
==References==<!-- Zootaxa 1531: 49 --> |
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Revision as of 17:11, 14 November 2022
| Amolops torrentis | |
|---|---|
| |
Scientific classification 
| |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Amphibia |
| Order: | Anura |
| Family: | Ranidae |
| Genus: | Amolops |
| Species: | A. torrentis
|
| Binomial name | |
| Amolops torrentis (Smith, 1923)
| |
| Synonyms | |
| |
Amolops torrentis, commonly known as the torrent sucker frog or the little torrent frog is a species of frog in the family Ranidae and genus Amolops that is endemic to China, specifically only on the island of Hainan. [2]
Description
A. torrentis has sexual size dimorphism, with females of the species tending to be larger than males of the species (adult females have snout-ventral lengths of less than 42 mm, while adult males have snout-ventral lengths of less than 35 mm).[3]
A. torrentis contains multiple characteristics that distinguish it from other members of the Amolops genus that also exist in China and southeast Asia. One of these is that A. torrentis has tarsal glands. [4] A. torrentis also has a distinct tympanum edge and a tibio-tarsal articulation reaching beyond the snout when the back limbs are adpressed. [3] Individuals of this species also have a distinct glandular ridge (also known as a dorsolateral fold of skin) under the tarsus and smooth bumps on the back, along with a circummarginal groove at the tip of the first finger. [5][6] Males of the species also possess a pair of subgular vocal sacs that are white colored.
The tadpoles of the species are up to 35 mm in length.[7] The tadpoles have a divided upper jaw sheath with 5/3 labial tooth rows.[5] The tadpoles also have ventral glands.[5]
Habitat and Distribution
Habitat
A. torrentis lives in medium and large streams and the surrounding wetland area. [1] During the day, individuals of this species usually crouch on rocks near the stream rapids or on stone walls near the waterfalls, but will occasionally stay in the water for brief periods of time and then float on the water surface.[1] At night, individuals of A. torrentis can be found on rocks near the streams or on leaves of nearby shrubbery and weeds.
Females of A. torrentis lay eggs at rocky and fast flowing sites in the stream, specifically in holes or openings in the rock piles where the follicles can be anchored to the stones or to nearby soils to prevent the eggs from being washed away.[8] Tadpoles also inhabit similar locations.[8]
Distribution
A. torrentis has only been found on Hainan island in China, in locations that range from 80 to 1000 meters in elevation.[1] While it has been reported in the Guangdong province of mainland China, these sightings have been disproven and those frogs reclassified into other, related Amolops species.
Conservation
A. torrentis is listed as vulnerable by the IUCN, as last assessed in 2019.[1] It was given this classification because its area range is only 15,838 km^2, it only occurs in Hainan, and its habitat on Hainan is declining in terms of the extent and quality.[1] Identified threats to the species include annual and perennial non-wood crops, wood and pulp plantations, logging and wood harvesting, dams and water management, and agricultural and forestry effluents.[1] Previously, it had been a concern that the construction of hydroelectric plants in Hainan would pose a threat to A. torrentis, but this concern has been alleviated by the fact that the construction of these plants has occurred and no new plants are planned, and no major damage to the species population has been seen.[1]
Habitat Loss
In particular, an increase in the number of rubber plantations, along with banana plantations and areca crops are decreasing the size of the forest habitat for A. torrentis while also polluting the habitat with herbicides and pesticides.[1] This habitat loss is particularly concerning because A. torrentis only occurs on the island of Hainan.
Conservation Efforts
To combat the threat of habitat loss, A. torrentis is present in several protected areas in Hainan, including nature reserves and forest parks.[1] In addition, it is also on the "List of Beneficial or of Important Economic or Scientific Value Terrestrial Wild Animals under States Protection", which is under the protection of the "Law of the People's Republic of China on the Protection of Wildlife," providing a degree of protection to the species and also making it illegal to collect.[1]
Phylogeny
A. torrentis is closely related to other members of the Amolops genus, but it is specifically within the A. hainanensis group within the genus.[9] This means A. torrentis is sister taxa to both A. hainanensis and A. daiyunnensis.[10]
Mating
Mating in this species occurs via calling, as calls are transmitted across and around streams.[11] The call sounds like a sharp and high “squeak, squeak, squeak” as males produce calls that consist of a series of identical repeated notes throughout the day and night during breeding season.[2][11]
Males of this species change their call frequency in response to noise but not their call intensity or amplitude.[12] Researchers investigating this utilized recordings of stream noise to determine how stream noise changes characteristics of male calling.[12] The lack of an increase in call amplitude with increased background noise is a contradiction to the Lombard hypothesis that animals would increase both their call frequency and their call amplitude in response to noise in the environment, instead supporting the theory that calling with a higher frequency helps prevent their calls from being lost in the background noise.[12] This may be due to the fact that stream noise (the primary background noise for these frogs) is mainly in lower frequency ranges, so the upward shift in call frequency could be more adaptive than increasing the lowest frequencies.[12]
Females of A. torrentis prefer higher-frequency calls over lower-frequency calls regardless of background noise levels.[11] In addition, females prefer calls with high amplitude noise added over calls with low amplitude stream noise added, but stream/background noise is not attractive to females by itself.[8] This may indicate that stream noise could be used as a cue by females to enhance the attractiveness of calls, as river noise would be associated with the rocks and vegetation of the habitat of A. torrentis and thus help provide information for where best to lay eggs.[8]
However, females of this species likely do not rely only on auditory cues in choosing a partner to mate with. Researchers have found that both auditory cues (male calling) and visual cues (in the form of male vocal-sac inflation) were attractive to female A. torrentis, but the auditory cues were more attractive than visual cues.[13] Males of this species prefer to call from stones in the river that have the same background color as the frog’s body and different than the white color of the vocal sac, so vocal-sac inflation is conspicuous in the environment.[13]
Enemies
Parasites
Individuals of these species suffer from parasitism from blood-sucking parasites like frog-biting midges.[14] These midges are attracted to the acoustic signal given by male members of A. torrentis, which leads to limb movements to defend against these parasites.[14] The limb movements include toe trembling, hind foot lifting, arm waving, limb shaking, wiping, leg stretching, and foot flagging.[14] These movements may also be incorporated into a sexual display, as males that display these parasite defensive limb movements are perceived as more attractive by female members of the species.[14]
Physiology
Hearing
Frogs of this species rely on hearing in order to hear the calls that the males produce. The best hearing range for females is 1.6-2 kHz in frequency, and females also prefer higher frequency calls over lower frequency calls regardless of ambient noise levels in the background.[11] However, the dominant frequency of the calls given by the males is higher in frequency, around 4.3 Hz.[11] This mismatch is a contradiction to the matched filter hypothesis, which states that the auditory sensitivity/range of animal calls and the actual spectral character/frequency of the calls will match to make courtship calling most efficient.[11] This contradiction offers support to the hypothesis that A. torrentis evolved from frogs that did not live near a stream and thus the high-frequency calls evolved in the species due to the selection pressure of noise from nearby streams.[11]
The hearing of individuals of this species is also partially temperature dependent. Measures of auditory brainstem responses to determine auditory sensitivity have shown that both the auditory thresholds are higher and the latencies are longer at colder temperatures as compared to warmer temperatures for calls made at lower frequencies, but this difference in auditory sensitivity due to temperature was not found for higher frequency calls.[15] This temperature-dependent change in auditory sensitivity indicates that while temperature changes can change auditory sensitivity around the best hearing range for females (lower frequency), they do not impact auditory sensitivity around the female-preferred frequency range (higher frequencies), so these temperature-dependent changes might be adaptive for reproductive behavior in this species.[15]
Glands and Toxins
Bradykinin-related proteins (BRPs) have been isolated from the skin of individuals of A. torrentis.[16] Bradykinin is a powerful endothelium-dependent vasodilator that induces a drop in blood pressure, and the contraction of the bronchi and smooth muscles in the ileum.[16] Isolated BRPs from A. torrentis have been shown to have a contractive effect on the smooth muscle of rat ileum in the laboratory setting.[16] BRPs are thought to play a role in defense against predators, as the contraction in the ileum may stimulate the gastrointestinal system of a predator to cause vomiting and other unpleasant reactions that deters the predator from consuming members of A. torrentis again.[16]
References
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group (2020). "Amolops torrentis". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T58227A63851847. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-1.RLTS.T58227A63851847.en. Retrieved 15 November 2021.
- ^ a b Frost, Darrel R. (2014). "Amolops torrentis (Smith, 1923)". Amphibian Species of the World: an Online Reference. Version 6.0. American Museum of Natural History. Retrieved 18 February 2014.
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{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help)CS1 maint: PMC format (link) - ^ a b c d Zhao, Longhui; Sun, Xiaoqian; Chen, Qinghua; Yang, Yue; Wang, Jichao; Ran, Jianghong; Brauth, Steven E.; Tang, Yezhong; Cui, Jianguo (2018-12). "Males increase call frequency, not intensity, in response to noise, revealing no Lombard effect in the little torrent frog". Ecology and Evolution. 8 (23): 11733–11741. doi:10.1002/ece3.4625. PMC 6303699. PMID 30598771.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help)CS1 maint: PMC format (link) - ^ a b "Behavioral and Neurogenomic Responses to Acoustic and Visual Sexual Cues are Correlated in Female Torrent Frogs - 中国知网". kns.cnki.net. doi:10.16373/j.cnki.ahr.200063. Retrieved 2022-11-14.
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