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'''Plant-animal interactions''' (PAI) are important pathways for the transfer of energy within ecosystems, where both advantageous and unfavorable interactions support ecosystem health.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Plant-Animal Interactions - Botany - Trinity College Dublin |url=https://www.tcd.ie/Botany/research/groups/plantanimal.php |access-date=2023-03-04 |website=www.tcd.ie}}</ref> Plant-animal interactions can take on important ecological functions and manifest in a variety of combinations of favorable and unfavorable associations, for example predation, frugivory and herbivory, parasitism, and mutualism.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chama |first=Lackson |last2=Berens |first2=Dana G. |last3=Downs |first3=Colleen T. |last4=Farwig |first4=Nina |date=2013-01-24 |title=Habitat Characteristics of Forest Fragments Determine Specialisation of Plant-Frugivore Networks in a Mosaic Forest Landscape |url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0054956 |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=e54956 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0054956 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=PMC3554686 |pmid=23365688}}</ref> Without mutualistic relationships, some plants may not be able to complete their life cycles, and the animals may starve due to resource deficiency.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Castagneyrol |first=Bastien |last2=Bonal |first2=Damien |last3=Damien |first3=Maxime |last4=Jactel |first4=Hervé |last5=Meredieu |first5=Céline |last6=Muiruri |first6=Evalyne W. |last7=Barbaro |first7=Luc |date=May 2017 |title=Bottom-up and top-down effects of tree species diversity on leaf insect herbivory |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ece3.2950 |journal=Ecology and Evolution |language=en |volume=7 |issue=10 |pages=3520–3531 |doi=10.1002/ece3.2950 |pmc=PMC5433970 |pmid=28515887}}</ref>
'''Plant-animal interactions''' (PAI) are important pathways for the transfer of energy within ecosystems, where both advantageous and unfavorable interactions support ecosystem health.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Plant-Animal Interactions - Botany - Trinity College Dublin |url=https://www.tcd.ie/Botany/research/groups/plantanimal.php |access-date=2023-03-04 |website=www.tcd.ie}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Del-Claro |first=Kleber |url=https://books.google.co.za/books/about/Plant_Animal_Interactions.html?id=hZosEAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=kp_read_button&hl=en&redir_esc=y |title=Plant-Animal Interactions: Source of Biodiversity |last2=Torezan-Silingardi |first2=Helena Maura |date=2021-05-03 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-66877-8 |language=en}}</ref> Plant-animal interactions can take on important ecological functions and manifest in a variety of combinations of favorable and unfavorable associations, for example predation, frugivory and herbivory, parasitism, and mutualism.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chama |first=Lackson |last2=Berens |first2=Dana G. |last3=Downs |first3=Colleen T. |last4=Farwig |first4=Nina |date=2013-01-24 |title=Habitat Characteristics of Forest Fragments Determine Specialisation of Plant-Frugivore Networks in a Mosaic Forest Landscape |url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0054956 |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=e54956 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0054956 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=PMC3554686 |pmid=23365688}}</ref> Without mutualistic relationships, some plants may not be able to complete their life cycles, and the animals may starve due to resource deficiency.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Castagneyrol |first=Bastien |last2=Bonal |first2=Damien |last3=Damien |first3=Maxime |last4=Jactel |first4=Hervé |last5=Meredieu |first5=Céline |last6=Muiruri |first6=Evalyne W. |last7=Barbaro |first7=Luc |date=May 2017 |title=Bottom-up and top-down effects of tree species diversity on leaf insect herbivory |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ece3.2950 |journal=Ecology and Evolution |language=en |volume=7 |issue=10 |pages=3520–3531 |doi=10.1002/ece3.2950 |pmc=PMC5433970 |pmid=28515887}}</ref>


[[File:Haselmaus.jpg|thumb|Frugivory is an example of plant-animal interaction]]
[[File:Haselmaus.jpg|thumb|Frugivory is an example of plant-animal interaction]]

Revision as of 08:03, 4 March 2023

Plant-animal interactions (PAI) are important pathways for the transfer of energy within ecosystems, where both advantageous and unfavorable interactions support ecosystem health.[1][2] Plant-animal interactions can take on important ecological functions and manifest in a variety of combinations of favorable and unfavorable associations, for example predation, frugivory and herbivory, parasitism, and mutualism.[3] Without mutualistic relationships, some plants may not be able to complete their life cycles, and the animals may starve due to resource deficiency.[4]

Frugivory is an example of plant-animal interaction

Evolution

Relationship

Defoliation or root removal caused by herbivory can control or reduce the overall phytomass, but it can also promote species diversity and have an impact on plant dispersion, which in turn controls ecological stability.[5][6] In mutualistic relationships between pollinators and plants, the former receives food from the latter and in exchange acts as a plant propagation agent and a gene-transfer vector.[7] The intricate web of species-specificity, habitat choice, and coevolution between plants and their pollinators has already been clarified by studies examining the feeding behaviors of pollinators and their interactive role in maintaining ecosystems.[8] True mutualisms also promote development and provide pathogen protection.[9] Plant growth and development are aided by mutualistic interactions between animals and plants, such as those between nematodes and insects.[10]

Types

Predation

Predation is a biological interaction where one organism, the predator, kills and eats another organism, its prey. There are carnivorous plants as well as herbivores and carnivores that consume plants and animals, respectively. Due to the extremely low nutritional content of the soil in which they grow and extra nitrogen is needed by the plants, therefore carnivorous plants eat insects. By photosynthesis, these plants continue to receive energy from the sun.[11]

Parasitism

Parasitism is a close relationship between species, where one organism, the parasite, lives on or inside another organism, the host, causing it some harm, and is adapted structurally to this way of life. Plant parasites are a common term for sap-sucking insects like aphids.[12]

Commensalism

Commensalism is the term used to describe a situation in which one person gains and the other is neither harmed nor benefited.[13] For instance, epiphytes on tree trunks in rain forests are aided by the trees because they provide a surface for their growth. Unless the epiphytes' weight becomes so great that the tree branches break, the epiphytes don't seem to have any effect on the trees.[14]

Mutualism

When both species gain from their interaction, mutualism develops. The mutualistic link between pollinators and plants is very well illustrated. In this instance, the animal pollinator (bee, butterfly, beetle, hummingbird, etc.) receives nourishment in exchange for carrying the plants' pollen from flower to flower (usually nectar or pollen). Another common method of seed dispersion involves an alliance between the plant and the animal that disperses the seeds. The tasty fruit that encases the seeds is consumed by numerous animals. The seeds are subsequently dispersed in a new spot some distance from the parent plant, frequently with feces that also serves as a little amount of fertilizer. In every ecosystem, there are interactions of this nature between species.[15][16][17]

See also

References

  1. ^ "Plant-Animal Interactions - Botany - Trinity College Dublin". www.tcd.ie. Retrieved 2023-03-04.
  2. ^ Del-Claro, Kleber; Torezan-Silingardi, Helena Maura (2021-05-03). Plant-Animal Interactions: Source of Biodiversity. Springer Nature. ISBN 978-3-030-66877-8.
  3. ^ Chama, Lackson; Berens, Dana G.; Downs, Colleen T.; Farwig, Nina (2013-01-24). "Habitat Characteristics of Forest Fragments Determine Specialisation of Plant-Frugivore Networks in a Mosaic Forest Landscape". PLOS ONE. 8 (1): e54956. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0054956. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3554686. PMID 23365688.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  4. ^ Castagneyrol, Bastien; Bonal, Damien; Damien, Maxime; Jactel, Hervé; Meredieu, Céline; Muiruri, Evalyne W.; Barbaro, Luc (May 2017). "Bottom-up and top-down effects of tree species diversity on leaf insect herbivory". Ecology and Evolution. 7 (10): 3520–3531. doi:10.1002/ece3.2950. PMC 5433970. PMID 28515887.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
  5. ^ Castagneyrol, Bastien; Bonal, Damien; Damien, Maxime; Jactel, Hervé; Meredieu, Céline; Muiruri, Evalyne W.; Barbaro, Luc (May 2017). "Bottom-up and top-down effects of tree species diversity on leaf insect herbivory". Ecology and Evolution. 7 (10): 3520–3531. doi:10.1002/ece3.2950. PMC 5433970. PMID 28515887.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
  6. ^ Milchunas, D. G.; Lauenroth, W. K. (November 1993). "Quantitative Effects of Grazing on Vegetation and Soils Over a Global Range of Environments: Ecological Archives M063-001". Ecological Monographs. 63 (4): 327–366. doi:10.2307/2937150. ISSN 0012-9615.
  7. ^ Allan G. Ellis, Steven D. Johnson (July–August 2012). "Lack of floral constancy by bee fly pollinators: implications for ethological isolation in an African daisy". Behavioural Ecology. 23 (4): 729–734. doi:10.1093/beheco/ars019.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date format (link)
  8. ^ Sargent, Risa D.; Ackerly, David D. (2008-03-01). "Plant–pollinator interactions and the assembly of plant communities". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 23 (3): 123–130. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2007.11.003. ISSN 0169-5347. PMID 18262307.
  9. ^ Agerbo Rasmussen, Jacob; Nielsen, Martin; Mak, Sarah S. T.; Döring, Johanna; Klincke, Franziska; Gopalakrishnan, Shyam; Dunn, Robert R.; Kauer, Randolf; Gilbert, Marcus Thomas Pius (January 2021). "eDNA‐based biomonitoring at an experimental German vineyard to characterize how management regimes shape ecosystem diversity". Environmental DNA. 3 (1): 70–82. doi:10.1002/edn3.131. ISSN 2637-4943.
  10. ^ Ladin, Zachary S.; Ferrell, Barbra; Dums, Jacob T.; Moore, Ryan M.; Levia, Delphis F.; Shriver, W. Gregory; D’Amico, Vincent; Trammell, Tara L. E.; Setubal, João Carlos; Wommack, K. Eric (2021-01-15). "Assessing the efficacy of eDNA metabarcoding for measuring microbial biodiversity within forest ecosystems". Scientific Reports. 11 (1): 1629. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-80602-9. ISSN 2045-2322.
  11. ^ Lafferty, K. D.; Kuris, A. M. (2002). "Trophic strategies, animal diversity and body size". Trends Ecol. Evol. 17 (11): 507–513. doi:10.1016/s0169-5347(02)02615-0.
  12. ^ Poulin, Robert (2007). Evolutionary Ecology of Parasites. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-12085-0.
  13. ^ Wilson, Edward O. (2000-03-24). Sociobiology: The New Synthesis, Twenty-Fifth Anniversary Edition. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-00089-6.
  14. ^ "Rainforest Epiphytes". Mongabay.com. Retrieved 2023-03-04.
  15. ^ Bronstein, J. L. (2015). The study of mutualism. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199675654. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  16. ^ Fritsch FE, Salisbury EJ (1920). An introduction to the structure and reproduction of plants. G. Bell.
  17. ^ Mauseth JD (2008). Botany: An Introduction to Plant Biology. Jones & Bartlett. ISBN 978-0-7637-5345-0.
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