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'''Richard Gerrit Coss''' is an [[Americans|American]] [[Evolutionary psychology|evolutionary psychologist]], and academic. He is a Professor [[Emeritus]] of [[Psychology]] at the [[University of California, Davis]].<ref name=ijk>{{cite web|url=https://psychology.ucdavis.edu/people/rgcoss|title=Richard Coss}}</ref>
'''Richard Gerrit Coss''' is an [[Americans|American]] [[Evolutionary psychology|evolutionary psychologist]], and academic. He is a Professor [[Emeritus]] of [[Psychology]] at the [[University of California, Davis]].<ref name=ijk>{{Cite web|url=https://psychology.ucdavis.edu/people/rgcoss|title=Richard Coss — People in the Social Science Departments at UC Davis|website=psychology.ucdavis.edu}}</ref>


Coss' research interest spans the field of behavioral evolution, with a particular focus on analyzing [[adaptation|adaptive variation]] in antipredator behavior in different populations, and the impact of developmental, physiological, and neurobiological constraints on behavior. He is most known for his work on [[dendritic spine]] plasticity, and early contributions to the field of evolutionary [[aesthetic]] preferences.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.2752/089279390787057586|title=Provocative Aspects of Pictures of Animals in Confined Settings}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4612-3012-0_31|title=Functional Esthetics to Enhance Weil-Being in Isolated and Confined Settings}}</ref> He has also authored and co-authored more than 130 peer-reviewed journal articles<ref>{{cite web|url=https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=g_1K6nAAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao|title=Richard Coss}}</ref> and is the editor of the book ''Environmental Awareness: Evolutionary, Aesthetic and Social Perspectives''.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://books.google.com.pk/books/about/Environmental_Awareness.html?id=8eOZPAAACAAJ&redir_esc=y|title=Environmental Awareness: Evolutionary, Aesthetic and Social Perspectivesop}}</ref>
Coss' research interest spans the field of behavioral evolution, with a particular focus on analyzing [[adaptation|adaptive variation]] in antipredator behavior in different populations, and the impact of developmental, physiological, and neurobiological constraints on behavior. He is most known for his work on [[dendritic spine]] plasticity, and early contributions to the field of evolutionary [[aesthetic]] preferences.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://doi.org/10.2752/089279390787057586|title=Provocative Aspects of Pictures of Animals in Confined Settings|first1=Richard G.|last1=Coss|first2=Steven R.|last2=Towers|date=January 1, 1990|journal=Anthrozoös|volume=3|issue=3|pages=162–170|via=Taylor and Francis+NEJM|doi=10.2752/089279390787057586}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4612-3012-0_31|title=Functional Esthetics to Enhance Weil-Being in Isolated and Confined Settings|first1=Yvonne A.|last1=Clearwater|first2=Richard G.|last2=Coss|editor-first1=Albert A.|editor-last1=Harrison|editor-first2=Yvonne A.|editor-last2=Clearwater|editor-first3=Christopher P.|editor-last3=McKay|date=March 9, 1991|publisher=Springer|pages=331–348|via=Springer Link|doi=10.1007/978-1-4612-3012-0_31}}</ref> He has also authored and co-authored more than 130 peer-reviewed journal articles<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=g_1K6nAAAAAJ&hl=en|title=Richard Coss|website=scholar.google.com}}</ref> and is the editor of the book ''Environmental Awareness: Evolutionary, Aesthetic and Social Perspectives''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://books.google.com.pk/books/about/Environmental_Awareness.html?id=8eOZPAAACAAJ&redir_esc=y|title=Environmental awareness: evolutionary, aesthetic, and social perspectives|first=Richard G.|last=Coss|date=March 9, 2005|publisher=Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company|via=Google Books}}</ref>


Coss is a Fellow of the [[Association for Psychological Science]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://member.psychologicalscience.org/directories/fellows|title=APS Fellows}}</ref> and has been a member of numerous professional societies, including the [[Animal Behavior Society]] and [[Leonardo, the International Society for the Arts, Sciences and Technology|International Society for the Arts, Sciences and Technology]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://leonardo.info/network/9858|title=Richard Coss}}</ref>
Coss is a Fellow of the [[Association for Psychological Science]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://member.psychologicalscience.org/directories/fellows|title=APS Fellows|website=member.psychologicalscience.org}}</ref> and has been a member of numerous professional societies, including the [[Animal Behavior Society]] and [[Leonardo, the International Society for the Arts, Sciences and Technology|International Society for the Arts, Sciences and Technology]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://leonardo.info/network/9858|title=Richard Coss}}</ref>


==Early life and education==
==Early life and education==
Coss was born on January 3, 1940, in [[Sanger, California]]. He is the son of Dr. Joe Glenn and Cornelia Geraldine Coss. After completing his early education, he enrolled at the [[University of Southern California]] and graduated in 1962 with a major in [[Industrial Design]] in the School of Architecture. Later in 1966, he earned his Master’s degree in Design from the [[University of California, Los Angeles]]. In 1973, he completed his Ph.D. in [[Comparative psychology]] at the [[University of Reading]] in the UK, where Corinne Hutt was his dissertation adviser. For his dissertation, Coss conducted [[comparative research]] on the perceptual aspects of eye-like schemata in [[African jewelfish]], [[mouse lemur|mouse lemurs]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4533873|title=Perceptual Determinants of Gaze Aversion by the Lesser Mouse Lemur (Microcebus murinus), the Role of Two Facing Eyes}}</ref> and autistic and typically developing children.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4533974|title=Perceptual Determinants of Gaze Aversion by Normal and Psychotic Children: The Role of Two Facing Eyes}}</ref>
Coss was born on January 3, 1940, in [[Sanger, California]]. He is the son of Dr. Joe Glenn and Cornelia Geraldine Coss. After completing his early education, he enrolled at the [[University of Southern California]] and graduated in 1962 with a major in [[Industrial Design]] in the School of Architecture. Later in 1966, he earned his Master’s degree in Design from the [[University of California, Los Angeles]]. In 1973, he completed his Ph.D. in [[Comparative psychology]] at the [[University of Reading]] in the UK, where Corinne Hutt was his dissertation adviser. For his dissertation, Coss conducted [[comparative research]] on the perceptual aspects of eye-like schemata in [[African jewelfish]], [[mouse lemur|mouse lemurs]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/4533873|title=Perceptual Determinants of Gaze Aversion by the Lesser Mouse Lemur (Microcebus murinus), the Role of Two Facing Eyes|author=Coss, Richard G.|year=1978|journal=Behaviour|volume=64|issue=3/4|pages=248-270|via=JSTOR}}</ref> and autistic and typically developing children.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/4533974|title=Perceptual Determinants of Gaze Aversion by Normal and Psychotic Children: The Role of Two Facing Eyes|author=Coss, Richard G.|year=1979|journal=Behaviour|volume=69|issue=3/4|pages=228-254|via=JSTOR}}</ref>


==Career==
==Career==
Coss started his academic career in 1971, as a Lecturer of Design at the University of California, Los Angeles. After earning his Ph.D. in Psychology, he became an Assistant Professor of Psychology at the University of California, Davis. He was later promoted to Associate Professor in 1978 and became a Professor of Psychology in 1984. Since 2014, he has been serving as Professor Emeritus of Psychology at the University of California, Davis.<ref name=ijk/>
Coss started his academic career in 1971, as a Lecturer of Design at the University of California, Los Angeles. After earning his Ph.D. in Psychology, he became an Assistant Professor of Psychology at the University of California, Davis. He was later promoted to Associate Professor in 1978 and became a Professor of Psychology in 1984. Since 2014, he has been serving as Professor Emeritus of Psychology at the University of California, Davis.<ref name=ijk/>


Coss worked at [[Douglas Aircraft Company]] from 1962 to 1966. Afterwards, in 1966 he held an appointment as Research Director at the Compagnie de l'Esthetique Industrielle in France that developed the corporate identity for the Shell Oil Corporation.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cairn.info/revue-entreprises-et-histoire-2022-3-page-37.html|title=The Shell project of the Compagnie de l'Esthétique Industrielle in 1968: review and lessons from the unsuccessful project Didier Pacoud}}</ref> Later, in 1986, he received a Fellowship by the [[Ames Research Center|NASA-Ames Research Center]] where he aided in evaluating ways to enhance space-station interiors for long-term habitation.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/001872088803000607|title=Differential Color Brightness as a Body Orientation Cue}}</ref>
Coss worked at [[Douglas Aircraft Company]] from 1962 to 1966. Afterwards, in 1966 he held an appointment as Research Director at the Compagnie de l'Esthetique Industrielle in France that developed the corporate identity for the Shell Oil Corporation.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cairn.info/revue-entreprises-et-histoire-2022-3-page-37.html|title=The Shell project of the Compagnie de l'Esthétique Industrielle in 1968: review and lessons from the unsuccessful project Didier Pacoud}}</ref> Later, in 1986, he received a Fellowship by the [[Ames Research Center|NASA-Ames Research Center]] where he aided in evaluating ways to enhance space-station interiors for long-term habitation.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/001872088803000607|title=Differential Color Brightness as a Body Orientation Cue|first1=Christopher G.|last1=Barbour|first2=Richard G.|last2=Coss|date=December 9, 1988|journal=Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society|volume=30|issue=6|pages=713–717|via=DOI.org (Crossref)|doi=10.1177/001872088803000607}}</ref>


==Research==
==Research==
At the beginning of his career, Coss focused his research on human-factors engineering with [[aerospace]] applications at Douglas Aircraft Company. In this context, he was appointed Project Engineer for a [[moonbase|lunar-base]] design proposal to [[NASA]] using, for habitation, the spherical tanks manufactured for the second stage of the [[Saturn V|Saturn 5]] lunar rocket. He has studied environmental aesthetics with respect to art and design. Later, his work was aimed at analyzing the antipredator behavior of several species in both field and laboratory conditions as model systems for understanding the development of [[instinct|innate behavior]] and aesthetic preferences in the context of human evolutionary history. He has published numerous articles in scientific journals and was the recipient of a patent for creating an apparatus for measuring pupillary dilation.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://patents.google.com/patent/US3535026A/en|title=Apparatus for measuring the dilation of the pupil}}</ref>
At the beginning of his career, Coss focused his research on human-factors engineering with [[aerospace]] applications at Douglas Aircraft Company. In this context, he was appointed Project Engineer for a [[moonbase|lunar-base]] design proposal to [[NASA]] using, for habitation, the spherical tanks manufactured for the second stage of the [[Saturn V|Saturn 5]] lunar rocket. He has studied environmental aesthetics with respect to art and design. Later, his work was aimed at analyzing the antipredator behavior of several species in both field and laboratory conditions as model systems for understanding the development of [[instinct|innate behavior]] and aesthetic preferences in the context of human evolutionary history. He has published numerous articles in scientific journals and was the recipient of a patent for creating an apparatus for measuring pupillary dilation.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://patents.google.com/patent/US3535026A/en|title=Apparatus for measuring the dilation of the pupil}}</ref>


===Behavioral evolution and environmental aesthetics ===
===Behavioral evolution and environmental aesthetics ===
Coss published a [[monograph]] in 1965 that described his [[visual perception]] research based on his theory that human [[ancestor|ancestors]] were the prey of [[predation|predators]] for a sufficient evolutionary time to engender innate recognition of predator features including two-facing eyes, sharp teeth, and claws.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com.pk/books/about/Mood_Provoking_Visual_Stimuli.html?id=c1N|title=Mood Provoking Visual Stimuli: Their Origins and Applications}}</ref> Subsequently, he posited that recognizing such specific provocative shapes enhanced emotional arousal in a manner that have had an impact on works of art,<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.jstor.org/stable/1571871?origin=crossref|title= The Ethological Command in Art}}</ref> architecture, and [[product design]].<ref name=ofg>{{cite web|url= https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-662-07142-7_4|title= The Role of Evolved Perceptual Biases in Art and Design}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-46190-4_10|title= The Influence of Image Salience on the Artistic Renditions of Cave Lions in the Early Upper Paleolithic}}</ref>
Coss published a [[monograph]] in 1965 that described his [[visual perception]] research based on his theory that human [[ancestor|ancestors]] were the prey of [[predation|predators]] for a sufficient evolutionary time to engender innate recognition of predator features including two-facing eyes, sharp teeth, and claws.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://books.google.com.pk/books/about/Mood_Provoking_Visual_Stimuli.html?id=c1N|title=Mood Provoking Visual Stimuli: Their Origins and Applications}}</ref> Subsequently, he posited that recognizing such specific provocative shapes enhanced emotional arousal in a manner that have had an impact on works of art,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/1571871|title=The Ethological Command in Art|author=Coss, Richard G.|year=1968|journal=Leonardo|volume=1|issue=3|pages=273-287|via=JSTOR|doi=10.2307/1571871}}</ref> architecture, and [[product design]].<ref name=ofg>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-07142-7_4|title=Evolutionary Aesthetics|first=Richard G.|last=Coss|editor-first1=Eckart|editor-last1=Voland|editor-first2=Karl|editor-last2=Grammer|date=March 9, 2003|publisher=Springer|pages=69–130|via=Springer Link|doi=10.1007/978-3-662-07142-7_4}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-46190-4_10|title=Evolutionary Perspectives on Imaginative Culture|first=Richard G.|last=Coss|editor-first1=Joseph|editor-last1=Carroll|editor-first2=Mathias|editor-last2=Clasen|editor-first3=Emelie|editor-last3=Jonsson|date=March 9, 2020|publisher=Springer International Publishing|pages=185–212|via=Springer Link|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-46190-4_10}}</ref>


While working on behavioral evolution, Coss identified that, despite having relaxed natural selection from snake predation for more than 300,000 years,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com.pk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=18WzmLm1dVcC&oi=fnd&pg=PA83&dq=The+persistence+of+old+designs+for+perception.&ots=ohifyhXwDO&sig=53kw2LkM2BgUKWek889kqc-02UI&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=The%20persistence%20of%20old%20designs%20for%20perception.&f=false|title=The Persistence of Old Designs For Perception}}</ref> California ground squirrels are still capable of distinguishing their rattlesnake and gopher snake predators<ref>{{cite web|url=https://academic.oup.com/jmammal/article/78/2/294/909505|title=Individual Variation in the Antisnake Behavior of California Ground Squirrels (Spermophilus beecheyi)}}</ref> as compared with [[Arctic ground squirrel|Arctic ground squirrels]] that have lost this ability over 3 million years.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4534840|title=Evolutionary Dissipation of an Antisnake System: Differential Behavior by California and Arctic Ground Squirrels in Above- and Below-Ground Contexts}}</ref> However, both species under prolonged relaxed selection have also lost their physiological resistance to [[rattlesnake]] [[venom]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0041010187901279?via%3Dihub|title=Resistance of California ground squirrels (Spermophilus Beecheyi) to the venom of the northern Pacific rattlesnake (Crotalus Viridis Oreganus): A study of adaptive variation}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4535086|title=Development of Antisnake Defenses in California Ground Squirrels (Spermophilus beecheyi): II. Microevolutionary Effects of Relaxed Selection from Rattlesnakes}}</ref> Following this research, he hypothesized that "evolved cognitive behavior in humans might persist for as long as 3 million years of relaxed selection" and to test this hypothesis he assessed the preschool children's selection of schematic trees as a form of refuge from predators and their overall refuge-seeking behavior on the playground,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1207/S15326969ECO1404_1|title=Precocious Knowledge of Trees as Antipredator Refuge in Preschool Children: An Examination of Aesthetics, Attributive Judgments, and Relic Sexual Dinichism}}</ref> particularly by investigating whether historical [[Sexual dimorphism|sexual-size dimorphism]] plays a role in influencing such behavior.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://revistas.usb.edu.co/index.php/IJPR/article/view/2325|title=Sex difference in choice of concealed or exposed refuge sites by preschool children viewing a model leopard in a playground simulation of antipredator behavior}}</ref> Subsequently, he examined the remembrances in pre-school children and adults of where "something scary" was located in their imagination relative to their beds at night<ref>{{cite web|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40806-021-00279-9|title=Something Scary Is Out There: Remembrances of Where the Threat Was Located by Preschool Children and Adults with Nighttime Fear}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40806-021-00289-7|title=Something Scary is Out There II: the Interplay of Childhood Experiences, Relict Sexual Dinichism, and Cross-cultural Differences in Spatial Fears}}</ref> producing findings which reinforced his argument that ancestral sources of natural selection might continue to bias modern aesthetic expression.<ref name=ofg/>
While working on behavioral evolution, Coss identified that, despite having relaxed natural selection from snake predation for more than 300,000 years,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://books.google.com.pk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=18WzmLm1dVcC&oi=fnd&pg=PA83&dq=The+persistence+of+old+designs+for+perception.&ots=ohifyhXwDO&sig=53kw2LkM2BgUKWek889kqc-02UI&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=The+persistence+of+old+designs+for+perception.&f=false|title=Perspectives in Ethology: Volume 11: Behavioral Design|first=N. S.|last=Thompson|date=May 31, 1995|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|via=Google Books}}</ref> California ground squirrels are still capable of distinguishing their rattlesnake and gopher snake predators<ref>{{cite web|url=https://academic.oup.com/jmammal/article/78/2/294/909505|title=Individual Variation in the Antisnake Behavior of California Ground Squirrels (Spermophilus beecheyi)}}</ref> as compared with [[Arctic ground squirrel|Arctic ground squirrels]] that have lost this ability over 3 million years.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/4534840|title=Evolutionary Dissipation of an Antisnake System: Differential Behavior by California and Arctic Ground Squirrels in Above- and Below-Ground Contexts|author1=Ronald O. Goldthwaite|author2=Coss, Richard G.|author3=Owings, Donald H.|year=1990|journal=Behaviour|volume=112|issue=3/4|pages=246-269|via=JSTOR}}</ref> However, both species under prolonged relaxed selection have also lost their physiological resistance to [[rattlesnake]] [[venom]].<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0041010187901279|title=Resistance of California ground squirrels (Spermophilus Beecheyi) to the venom of the northern Pacific rattlesnake (Crotalus Viridis Oreganus): A study of adaptive variation|first1=Naomie S.|last1=Poran|first2=Richard G.|last2=Coss|first3=Eli|last3=Benjamini|date=January 1, 1987|journal=Toxicon|volume=25|issue=7|pages=767–777|via=ScienceDirect|doi=10.1016/0041-0101(87)90127-9}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/4535086|title=Development of Antisnake Defenses in California Ground Squirrels (Spermophilus beecheyi): II. Microevolutionary Effects of Relaxed Selection from Rattlesnakes|author1=Coss, Richard G.|author2=Kevin L. Gus&#xe9;|author3=Poran, Naomie S.|author4=Smith, David G.|year=1993|journal=Behaviour|volume=124|issue=1/2|pages=137-164|via=JSTOR}}</ref> Following this research, he hypothesized that "evolved cognitive behavior in humans might persist for as long as 3 million years of relaxed selection" and to test this hypothesis he assessed the preschool children's selection of schematic trees as a form of refuge from predators and their overall refuge-seeking behavior on the playground,<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://doi.org/10.1207/S15326969ECO1404_1|title=Precocious Knowledge of Trees as Antipredator Refuge in Preschool Children: An Examination of Aesthetics, Attributive Judgments, and Relic Sexual Dinichism|first1=Richard G.|last1=Coss|first2=Michael|last2=Moore|date=October 1, 2002|journal=Ecological Psychology|volume=14|issue=4|pages=181–222|via=Taylor and Francis+NEJM|doi=10.1207/S15326969ECO1404_1}}</ref> particularly by investigating whether historical [[Sexual dimorphism|sexual-size dimorphism]] plays a role in influencing such behavior.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://revistas.usb.edu.co/index.php/IJPR/article/view/2325|title=Sex difference in choice of concealed or exposed refuge sites by preschool children viewing a model leopard in a playground simulation of antipredator behavior|first=Richard G.|last=Coss|date=July 1, 2016|journal=International Journal of Psychological Research|volume=9|issue=2|pages=8–19|via=revistas.usb.edu.co|doi=10.21500/20112084.2325}}</ref> Subsequently, he examined the remembrances in pre-school children and adults of where "something scary" was located in their imagination relative to their beds at night<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s40806-021-00279-9|title=Something Scary Is Out There: Remembrances of Where the Threat Was Located by Preschool Children and Adults with Nighttime Fear|first=Richard G.|last=Coss|date=September 1, 2021|journal=Evolutionary Psychological Science|volume=7|issue=3|pages=239–253|via=Springer Link|doi=10.1007/s40806-021-00279-9}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s40806-021-00289-7|title=Something Scary is Out There II: the Interplay of Childhood Experiences, Relict Sexual Dinichism, and Cross-cultural Differences in Spatial Fears|first1=Richard G.|last1=Coss|first2=Shelley A.|last2=Blozis|date=December 1, 2021|journal=Evolutionary Psychological Science|volume=7|issue=4|pages=359–379|via=Springer Link|doi=10.1007/s40806-021-00289-7}}</ref> producing findings which reinforced his argument that ancestral sources of natural selection might continue to bias modern aesthetic expression.<ref name=ofg/>


===Innate pattern recognition===
===Innate pattern recognition===
Coss has been acknowledged for his substantial work on the innate [[Pattern recognition (psychology)|pattern-recognition]] ability of different species. He elucidated that the salient effects of glossy and sparkling surface finishes attract infants and toddlers,<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1207/s15326969eco0204_3|title= All that Glistens: Water Connotations in Surface Finishes}}</ref> increasing the possibilities of endangering their life by drowning or suffocation from plastic bags<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1207/S15326969ECO1503_1|title= All That Glistens: II. The Effects of Reflective Surface Finishes on the Mouthing Activity of Infants and Toddlers}}</ref> and described that viewing water has calming effects on adults. <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0272494422000391?via%3Dihub|title=Transient decreases in blood pressure and heart rate with increased subjective level of relaxation while viewing water compared with adjacent ground}}</ref> Furthermore, he discovered that wild [[California ground squirrel|California ground squirrels]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1207/s15326969eco0304_1|title=Context and Animal Behavior III: The Relationship Between Early Development and Evolutionary Persistence of Ground Squirrel Antisnake Behavior}}</ref> [[white-faced capuchin]] monkeys, <ref>{{cite web|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ajp.22950|title=Development of snake-directed antipredator behavior by wild white-faced capuchin monkeys: III. the signaling properties of alarm-call tonality}}</ref> and [[Bonnet macaque|bonnet macaques]] are capable of recognizing their snake predators<ref>{{cite web|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1439-0310.2004.01063.x|title=Snake Species Discrimination by Wild Bonnet Macaques (Macaca radiata)}}</ref> by their size and scale patterns and, for bonnet macaques, their leopard predators by the spots on their coat.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://brill.com/view/journals/beh/137/3/article-p315_4.xml|title=Perceptual Aspects of leopard recognition by wild bonnet macaques (Macaca radiata)}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0376635704002438?via%3Dihub|title=Recognition of partially concealed leopards by wild bonnet macaques (Macaca radiata): The role of the spotted coat}}</ref> He later documented that young human infants are visually attracted reliably to snake-scale and leopard-spot patterns.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.763436/full|title=The Saliency of Snake Scales and Leopard Rosettes to Infants: Its Relevance to Graphical Patterns Portrayed in Prehistoric Art}}</ref>
Coss has been acknowledged for his substantial work on the innate [[Pattern recognition (psychology)|pattern-recognition]] ability of different species. He elucidated that the salient effects of glossy and sparkling surface finishes attract infants and toddlers,<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326969eco0204_3|title=All that Glistens: Water Connotations in Surface Finishes|first=Richard G.|last=Coss|date=December 1, 1990|journal=Ecological Psychology|volume=2|issue=4|pages=367–380|via=Taylor and Francis+NEJM|doi=10.1207/s15326969eco0204_3}}</ref> increasing the possibilities of endangering their life by drowning or suffocation from plastic bags<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://doi.org/10.1207/S15326969ECO1503_1|title=All That Glistens: II. The Effects of Reflective Surface Finishes on the Mouthing Activity of Infants and Toddlers|first1=Richard G.|last1=Coss|first2=Saralyn|last2=Ruff|first3=Tara|last3=Simms|date=July 1, 2003|journal=Ecological Psychology|volume=15|issue=3|pages=197–213|via=Taylor and Francis+NEJM|doi=10.1207/S15326969ECO1503_1}}</ref> and described that viewing water has calming effects on adults. <ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0272494422000391|title=Transient decreases in blood pressure and heart rate with increased subjective level of relaxation while viewing water compared with adjacent ground|first1=Richard G.|last1=Coss|first2=Craig M.|last2=Keller|date=June 1, 2022|journal=Journal of Environmental Psychology|volume=81|pages=101794|via=ScienceDirect|doi=10.1016/j.jenvp.2022.101794}}</ref> Furthermore, he discovered that wild [[California ground squirrel|California ground squirrels]],<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326969eco0304_1|title=Context and Animal Behavior III: The Relationship Between Early Development and Evolutionary Persistence of Ground Squirrel Antisnake Behavior|first=Richard G.|last=Coss|date=December 1, 1991|journal=Ecological Psychology|volume=3|issue=4|pages=277–315|via=Taylor and Francis+NEJM|doi=10.1207/s15326969eco0304_1}}</ref> [[white-faced capuchin]] monkeys, <ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ajp.22950|title=Development of snake‐directed antipredator behavior by wild white‐faced capuchin monkeys: III. the signaling properties of alarm‐call tonality|first1=Richard G.|last1=Coss|first2=Cailey|last2=Cavanaugh|first3=Whitney|last3=Brennan|date=March 9, 2019|journal=American Journal of Primatology|volume=81|issue=3|pages=e22950|via=DOI.org (Crossref)|doi=10.1002/ajp.22950}}</ref> and [[Bonnet macaque|bonnet macaques]] are capable of recognizing their snake predators<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1439-0310.2004.01063.x|title=Snake Species Discrimination by Wild Bonnet Macaques (Macaca radiata)|first1=Uma|last1=Ramakrishnan|first2=Richard G.|last2=Coss|first3=Jeffrey|last3=Schank|first4=Amita|last4=Dharawat|first5=Susan|last5=Kim|date=April 9, 2005|journal=Ethology|volume=111|issue=4|pages=337–356|via=DOI.org (Crossref)|doi=10.1111/j.1439-0310.2004.01063.x}}</ref> by their size and scale patterns and, for bonnet macaques, their leopard predators by the spots on their coat.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://brill.com/view/journals/beh/137/3/article-p315_4.xml|title=PERCEPTUAL ASPECTS OF LEOPARD RECOGNITION BY WILD BONNET MACAQUES (MACACA RADIATA)|first1=Uma|last1=Ramakrishnan|first2=Richard|last2=Coss|date=January 1, 2000|journal=Behaviour|volume=137|issue=3|pages=315–335|via=brill.com|doi=10.1163/156853900502105}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0376635704002438|title=Recognition of partially concealed leopards by wild bonnet macaques (Macaca radiata): The role of the spotted coat|first1=Richard G.|last1=Coss|first2=Uma|last2=Ramakrishnan|first3=Jeffrey|last3=Schank|date=February 28, 2005|journal=Behavioural Processes|volume=68|issue=2|pages=145–163|via=ScienceDirect|doi=10.1016/j.beproc.2004.12.004}}</ref> He later documented that young human infants are visually attracted reliably to snake-scale and leopard-spot patterns.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.763436|title=The Saliency of Snake Scales and Leopard Rosettes to Infants: Its Relevance to Graphical Patterns Portrayed in Prehistoric Art|first1=Richard G.|last1=Coss|first2=Eric P.|last2=Charles|date=March 9, 2021|journal=Frontiers in Psychology|volume=12|via=Frontiers|doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2021.763436/full}}</ref>


===Dendritic spine plasticity===
===Dendritic spine plasticity===
Coss evaluated the provocative effects of two-facing eyes in humans and worked on the brain development<ref>{{cite web|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1439-0310.1978.tb00246.x|title=Development of Face Aversion by the Jewel Fish (Hemichromis bimaculatus, Gill 1862)}}</ref> and behavior<ref>{{cite web|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/dev.420120408|title=Delayed plasticity of an instinct: Recognition and avoidance of 2 facing eyes by the jewel fish}}</ref> of jewel fish which led him to a cover article in ''Science''.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1746636|title=Spine Stems on Tectal Interneurons in Jewel Fish Are Shortened by Social Stimulation}}</ref> His joint study with A. Globus revealed that, due to [[social deprivation]], the formation of [[dendrite|dendritic branches]] in the [[Superior colliculus|optic tectum]] was arrested as was the experience-based shortening of dendritic spine stems.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/dev.420120409|title=Social experience affects the development of dendritic spines and branches on tectal interneurons in the jewel fish}}</ref> Moreover, a single threatening experience shortened dendritic spine stems in the optic tectum,<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0006899383906522?via%3Dihub|title= Rapid effect of biologically relevant stimulation on tectal neurons: changes in dendritic spine morphology after nine minutes are retained for twenty-four hours}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0163104785901700?via%|title=The function of dendritic spines: A review of theoretical issues}}</ref> and enhanced fish behavioral excitability in a manner analogous to PTSD in humans. In related research, he examined developing honeybees and observed the shortening of dendritic spine stems on calycal interneurons with progressive nursing and foraging experiences<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0006899380910070?via%3Dihub|title=Changes in morphology of dendritic spines on honeybee calycal interneurons associated with cumulative nursing and foraging experiences}}</ref> and also during their first orientation flight.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0006899382909775|title=Rapid dendritic spine stem shortening during one-trial learning: The honeybee's first orientation flight}}</ref>
Coss evaluated the provocative effects of two-facing eyes in humans and worked on the brain development<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1439-0310.1978.tb00246.x|title=Development of Face Aversion by the Jewel Fish (Hemichromis bimaculatus, Gill 1862)|first=Richard G.|last=Coss|date=April 26, 2010|journal=Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie|volume=48|issue=1|pages=28–46|via=DOI.org (Crossref)|doi=10.1111/j.1439-0310.1978.tb00246.x}}</ref> and behavior<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/dev.420120408|title=Delayed plasticity of an instinct: Recognition and avoidance of 2 facing eyes by the jewel fish|first=Richard G.|last=Coss|date=July 9, 1979|journal=Developmental Psychobiology|volume=12|issue=4|pages=335–345|via=DOI.org (Crossref)|doi=10.1002/dev.420120408}}</ref> of jewel fish which led him to a cover article in ''Science''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/1746636|title=Spine Stems on Tectal Interneurons in Jewel Fish Are Shortened by Social Stimulation|author1=Coss, Richard G.|author2=Globus, Albert|year=1978|journal=Science|volume=200|issue=4343|pages=787-790|via=JSTOR}}</ref> His joint study with A. Globus revealed that, due to [[social deprivation]], the formation of [[dendrite|dendritic branches]] in the [[Superior colliculus|optic tectum]] was arrested as was the experience-based shortening of dendritic spine stems.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/dev.420120409|title=Social experience affects the development of dendritic spines and branches on tectal interneurons in the jewel fish|first1=Richard G.|last1=Coss|first2=Albert|last2=Globus|date=July 9, 1979|journal=Developmental Psychobiology|volume=12|issue=4|pages=347–358|via=DOI.org (Crossref)|doi=10.1002/dev.420120409}}</ref> Moreover, a single threatening experience shortened dendritic spine stems in the optic tectum,<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0006899383906522|title=Rapid effect of biologically relevant stimulation on tectal neurons: changes in dendritic spine morphology after nine minutes are retained for twenty-four hours|first1=J.|last1=Wesley Burgess|first2=Richard G.|last2=Coss|date=May 5, 1983|journal=Brain Research|volume=266|issue=2|pages=217–223|via=ScienceDirect|doi=10.1016/0006-8993(83)90652-2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0163104785901700|title=The function of dendritic spines: A review of theoretical issues|first1=Richard G.|last1=Coss|first2=Donald H.|last2=Perkel|date=September 1, 1985|journal=Behavioral and Neural Biology|volume=44|issue=2|pages=151–185|via=ScienceDirect|doi=10.1016/S0163-1047(85)90170-0}}</ref> and enhanced fish behavioral excitability in a manner analogous to PTSD in humans. In related research, he examined developing honeybees and observed the shortening of dendritic spine stems on calycal interneurons with progressive nursing and foraging experiences<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0006899380910070|title=Changes in morphology of dendritic spines on honeybee calycal interneurons associated with cumulative nursing and foraging experiences|first1=Richard G.|last1=Coss|first2=John G.|last2=Brandon|first3=Albert|last3=Globus|date=June 16, 1980|journal=Brain Research|volume=192|issue=1|pages=49–59|via=ScienceDirect|doi=10.1016/0006-8993(80)91007-0}}</ref> and also during their first orientation flight.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0006899382909775|title=Rapid dendritic spine stem shortening during one-trial learning: The honeybee's first orientation flight|first1=John G.|last1=Brandon|first2=Richard G.|last2=Coss|date=December 2, 1982|journal=Brain Research|volume=252|issue=1|pages=51–61|via=ScienceDirect|doi=10.1016/0006-8993(82)90977-5}}</ref>


===Evolutionary constraints===
===Evolutionary constraints===
Coss also conducted a research series to explore the sources of natural selection mediating human brain evolution. This led to experiments measuring flight distances of wild horses in Arizona and African zebras to an approaching human.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fa0039677|title=Evolutionary constraints on equid domestication: Comparison of flight initiation distances of wild horses (Equus caballus ferus) and plains zebras (Equus quagga).}}</ref> The lower fear of wild horses compared with zebras led to his hypothesis that extensive human hunting in Africa might have led to an arm’s race for more competent hunting by humans to counter the increasingly evasive ability of wary prey.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/eth.12500|title=Effects of Single- and Mixed-Species Group Composition on the Flight Initiation Distances of Plains and Grevy's Zebras}}</ref> Such an arm’s race for enhanced visual and spatial competence in hunting might explain the enlargement of the human parietal cortex for accurate spear throwing as well the ability of modern humans to translate mental images into figurative art with significant cultural impact. In contrast, the lack of figurative art among European Neanderthals, who likely hunted less wary game with thrusting spears during the Middle Paleolithic, might account for the smaller size of the Neanderthal parietal cortex that limited their artistic expression.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.26613/esic.1.2.46|title=Drawings of Representational Images by Upper Paleolithic Humans and their Absence in Neanderthals Reflect Historical Differences in Hunting Wary Game}}</ref>
Coss also conducted a research series to explore the sources of natural selection mediating human brain evolution. This led to experiments measuring flight distances of wild horses in Arizona and African zebras to an approaching human.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/a0039677|title=Evolutionary constraints on equid domestication: Comparison of flight initiation distances of wild horses (Equus caballus ferus) and plains zebras (Equus quagga).|first1=Alexali S.|last1=Brubaker|first2=Richard G.|last2=Coss|date=March 9, 2015|journal=Journal of Comparative Psychology|volume=129|issue=4|pages=366–376|via=DOI.org (Crossref)|doi=10.1037/a0039677}}</ref> The lower fear of wild horses compared with zebras led to his hypothesis that extensive human hunting in Africa might have led to an arm’s race for more competent hunting by humans to counter the increasingly evasive ability of wary prey.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/eth.12500|title=Effects of Single- and Mixed-Species Group Composition on the Flight Initiation Distances of Plains and Grevy's Zebras|first1=Alexali S.|last1=Brubaker|first2=Richard G.|last2=Coss|editor-first=L.|editor-last=Ebensperger|date=July 9, 2016|journal=Ethology|volume=122|issue=7|pages=531–541|via=DOI.org (Crossref)|doi=10.1111/eth.12500}}</ref> Such an arm’s race for enhanced visual and spatial competence in hunting might explain the enlargement of the human parietal cortex for accurate spear throwing as well the ability of modern humans to translate mental images into figurative art with significant cultural impact. In contrast, the lack of figurative art among European Neanderthals, who likely hunted less wary game with thrusting spears during the Middle Paleolithic, might account for the smaller size of the Neanderthal parietal cortex that limited their artistic expression.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.26613/esic.1.2.46|title=Drawings of Representational Images by Upper Paleolithic Humans and their Absence in Neanderthals Reflect Historical Differences in Hunting Wary Game}}</ref>


===Animal welfare===
===Animal welfare===
Apart from working on environmental aesthetics and behavioral evolution, Coss has contributed to animal welfare by examining the impacts of human intrusions in wildlife habitats. He advised graduate students studying African wild dogs and found that black-tailed deer in coastal California unaccustomed to humans were highly cautious when a human approached.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://academic.oup.com/beheco/article/17/2/246/212896|title=Effects of predator behavior and proximity on risk assessment by Columbian black-tailed deer}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://academic.oup.com/beheco/article/18/2/358/203116|title=Effects of risk assessment, predator behavior, and habitat on escape behavior in Columbian black-tailed deer }}</ref> While working in India, he studied the sleeping-site selection of bonnet macaques living near human settlements,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02629636|title=Strategies used by bonnet macaques (Macaca radiata) to reduce predation risk while sleeping}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Richard-Coss/publication/249558967_A_Comparison_of_the_Sleeping_Behavior_of_Three_Sympatric_Primates/links/581d50e108aea429b2921d9f/A-Comparison-of-the-Sleeping-Behavior-of-Three-Sympatric-Primates|title=A Comparison of the Sleeping Behavior of Three Sympatric Primates}}</ref> and also examined the decline in tigers caused by the loss of palatable vegetation for large tiger prey.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320798001591?via%3Dihub|title=Tiger decline caused by the reduction of large ungulate prey: evidence from a study of leopard diets in southern India}}</ref> Also in India, he studied crop-raiding by Asian Elephants,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/oryx/article/playback-of-felid-growls-mitigates-cropraiding-by-elephants-elephas-maximus-in-southern-india/8DBE0715DD05C4B799A0227ADAB41F8B|title=Playback of felid growls mitigates crop-raiding by elephants Elephas maximus in southern India}}</ref> and found that crop-raiding could be thwarted when elephant-activated tiger growls were played back to them.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13880292.2012.678794|title=Using Threatening Sounds as a Conservation Tool: Evolutionary Bases for Managing Human–Elephant Conflict in India}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2013.0518|title= Wild Asian elephants distinguish aggressive tiger and leopard growls according to perceived danger}}</ref>
Apart from working on environmental aesthetics and behavioral evolution, Coss has contributed to animal welfare by examining the impacts of human intrusions in wildlife habitats. He advised graduate students studying African wild dogs and found that black-tailed deer in coastal California unaccustomed to humans were highly cautious when a human approached.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://academic.oup.com/beheco/article/17/2/246/212896|title=Effects of predator behavior and proximity on risk assessment by Columbian black-tailed deer}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://academic.oup.com/beheco/article/18/2/358/203116|title=Effects of risk assessment, predator behavior, and habitat on escape behavior in Columbian black-tailed deer }}</ref> While working in India, he studied the sleeping-site selection of bonnet macaques living near human settlements,<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02629636|title=Strategies used by bonnet macaques (Macaca radiata) to reduce predation risk while sleeping|first1=Uma|last1=Ramakrishnan|first2=Richard G.|last2=Coss|date=July 1, 2001|journal=Primates|volume=42|issue=3|pages=193–206|via=Springer Link|doi=10.1007/BF02629636}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Richard-Coss/publication/249558967_A_Comparison_of_the_Sleeping_Behavior_of_Three_Sympatric_Primates/links/581d50e108aea429b2921d9f/A-Comparison-of-the-Sleeping-Behavior-of-Three-Sympatric-Primates|title=A Comparison of the Sleeping Behavior of Three Sympatric Primates}}</ref> and also examined the decline in tigers caused by the loss of palatable vegetation for large tiger prey.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320798001591|title=Tiger decline caused by the reduction of large ungulate prey: evidence from a study of leopard diets in southern India|first1=Uma|last1=Ramakrishnan|first2=Richard G.|last2=Coss|first3=Neil W.|last3=Pelkey|date=July 1, 1999|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=89|issue=2|pages=113–120|via=ScienceDirect|doi=10.1016/S0006-3207(98)00159-1}}</ref> Also in India, he studied crop-raiding by Asian Elephants,<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/oryx/article/playback-of-felid-growls-mitigates-cropraiding-by-elephants-elephas-maximus-in-southern-india/8DBE0715DD05C4B799A0227ADAB41F8B|title=Playback of felid growls mitigates crop-raiding by elephants Elephas maximus in southern India|first1=Vivek|last1=Thuppil|first2=Richard G.|last2=Coss|date=April 9, 2016|journal=Oryx|volume=50|issue=2|pages=329–335|via=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/S0030605314000635}}</ref> and found that crop-raiding could be thwarted when elephant-activated tiger growls were played back to them.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/13880292.2012.678794|title=Using Threatening Sounds as a Conservation Tool: Evolutionary Bases for Managing Human–Elephant Conflict in India|first1=Vivek|last1=Thuppil|first2=Richard G.|last2=Coss|date=April 1, 2012|journal=Journal of International Wildlife Law & Policy|volume=15|issue=2|pages=167–185|via=Taylor and Francis+NEJM|doi=10.1080/13880292.2012.678794}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2013.0518|title=Wild Asian elephants distinguish aggressive tiger and leopard growls according to perceived danger|first1=Vivek|last1=Thuppil|first2=Richard G.|last2=Coss|date=October 23, 2013|journal=Biology Letters|volume=9|issue=5|pages=20130518|via=DOI.org (Crossref)|doi=10.1098/rsbl.2013.0518|pmid=24026347|pmc=PMC3971691}}</ref>


==Bibliography==
==Bibliography==
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===Selected articles===
===Selected articles===
*Coss, R. G. (1968). The ethological command in art. Leonardo 1, 273-287. https://doi.org/10.2307/1571871
*Coss, R. G. (1968). The ethological command in art. Leonardo 1, 273-287. [https://doi.org/10.2307/1571871 The Ethological Command in Art]
*Coss, R. G. & Perkel, D. H. (1985). The function of dendritic spines: A review of theoretical issues. Behavioral and Neural Biology, 44, 151-185. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0163-1047(85)90170-0
*Coss, R. G. & Perkel, D. H. (1985). The function of dendritic spines: A review of theoretical issues. Behavioral and Neural Biology, 44, 151-185. [https://doi.org/10.1016/S0163-1047(85)90170-0 The function of dendritic spines: A review of theoretical issues]
*Coss, R. G. (1999). Effects of relaxed natural selection on the evolution of behavior. Geographic Variation in Behavior: Perspectives on Evolutionary Mechanisms (Foster, S. & Endler, J. A., eds). Oxford University Press, Oxford, 180-208.
*Coss, R. G. (1999). Effects of relaxed natural selection on the evolution of behavior. Geographic Variation in Behavior: Perspectives on Evolutionary Mechanisms (Foster, S. & Endler, J. A., eds). Oxford University Press, Oxford, 180-208.
*Coss, R. G. (2003). The role of evolved perceptual biases in art and design. Evolutionary Aesthetics (Voland, E. & Grammer, K (eds). Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg, 69-130. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-07142-7_4
*Coss, R. G. (2003). The role of evolved perceptual biases in art and design. Evolutionary Aesthetics (Voland, E. & Grammer, K (eds). Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg, 69-130. [https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-07142-7_4 Evolutionary Aesthetics]
*Coss, R. G. (2017). Drawings of representational images by Upper Paleolithic humans and their absence in Neanderthals reflect historical differences in hunting wary game. Evolutionary Studies in Imaginative Culture, 1(2), 15-38. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.26613/esic.1.2.46
*Coss, R. G. (2017). Drawings of representational images by Upper Paleolithic humans and their absence in Neanderthals reflect historical differences in hunting wary game. Evolutionary Studies in Imaginative Culture, 1(2), 15-38. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.26613/esic.1.2.46 ]
*Coss, R. G., and Keller, C. M. (2022). Transient decreases in blood pressure and heart rate with increased subjective level of relaxation while viewing water compared with adjacent ground. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 81, 101794. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2022.101794
*Coss, R. G., and Keller, C. M. (2022). Transient decreases in blood pressure and heart rate with increased subjective level of relaxation while viewing water compared with adjacent ground. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 81, 101794. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2022.101794 Transient decreases in blood pressure and heart rate with increased subjective level of relaxation while viewing water compared with adjacent ground]


==References==
==References==

Revision as of 11:27, 9 March 2023

Richard Gerrit Coss
NationalityAmerican
Occupation(s)Evolutionary psychologist and academic
Academic background
EducationB.S. in Architecture
M.A. in Design
PhD in Comparative psychology
Alma materUniversity of Southern California
University of California
University of Reading
Academic work
InstitutionsUniversity of California

Richard Gerrit Coss is an American evolutionary psychologist, and academic. He is a Professor Emeritus of Psychology at the University of California, Davis.[1]

Coss' research interest spans the field of behavioral evolution, with a particular focus on analyzing adaptive variation in antipredator behavior in different populations, and the impact of developmental, physiological, and neurobiological constraints on behavior. He is most known for his work on dendritic spine plasticity, and early contributions to the field of evolutionary aesthetic preferences.[2][3] He has also authored and co-authored more than 130 peer-reviewed journal articles[4] and is the editor of the book Environmental Awareness: Evolutionary, Aesthetic and Social Perspectives.[5]

Coss is a Fellow of the Association for Psychological Science[6] and has been a member of numerous professional societies, including the Animal Behavior Society and International Society for the Arts, Sciences and Technology.[7]

Early life and education

Coss was born on January 3, 1940, in Sanger, California. He is the son of Dr. Joe Glenn and Cornelia Geraldine Coss. After completing his early education, he enrolled at the University of Southern California and graduated in 1962 with a major in Industrial Design in the School of Architecture. Later in 1966, he earned his Master’s degree in Design from the University of California, Los Angeles. In 1973, he completed his Ph.D. in Comparative psychology at the University of Reading in the UK, where Corinne Hutt was his dissertation adviser. For his dissertation, Coss conducted comparative research on the perceptual aspects of eye-like schemata in African jewelfish, mouse lemurs,[8] and autistic and typically developing children.[9]

Career

Coss started his academic career in 1971, as a Lecturer of Design at the University of California, Los Angeles. After earning his Ph.D. in Psychology, he became an Assistant Professor of Psychology at the University of California, Davis. He was later promoted to Associate Professor in 1978 and became a Professor of Psychology in 1984. Since 2014, he has been serving as Professor Emeritus of Psychology at the University of California, Davis.[1]

Coss worked at Douglas Aircraft Company from 1962 to 1966. Afterwards, in 1966 he held an appointment as Research Director at the Compagnie de l'Esthetique Industrielle in France that developed the corporate identity for the Shell Oil Corporation.[10] Later, in 1986, he received a Fellowship by the NASA-Ames Research Center where he aided in evaluating ways to enhance space-station interiors for long-term habitation.[11]

Research

At the beginning of his career, Coss focused his research on human-factors engineering with aerospace applications at Douglas Aircraft Company. In this context, he was appointed Project Engineer for a lunar-base design proposal to NASA using, for habitation, the spherical tanks manufactured for the second stage of the Saturn 5 lunar rocket. He has studied environmental aesthetics with respect to art and design. Later, his work was aimed at analyzing the antipredator behavior of several species in both field and laboratory conditions as model systems for understanding the development of innate behavior and aesthetic preferences in the context of human evolutionary history. He has published numerous articles in scientific journals and was the recipient of a patent for creating an apparatus for measuring pupillary dilation.[12]

Behavioral evolution and environmental aesthetics

Coss published a monograph in 1965 that described his visual perception research based on his theory that human ancestors were the prey of predators for a sufficient evolutionary time to engender innate recognition of predator features including two-facing eyes, sharp teeth, and claws.[13] Subsequently, he posited that recognizing such specific provocative shapes enhanced emotional arousal in a manner that have had an impact on works of art,[14] architecture, and product design.[15][16]

While working on behavioral evolution, Coss identified that, despite having relaxed natural selection from snake predation for more than 300,000 years,[17] California ground squirrels are still capable of distinguishing their rattlesnake and gopher snake predators[18] as compared with Arctic ground squirrels that have lost this ability over 3 million years.[19] However, both species under prolonged relaxed selection have also lost their physiological resistance to rattlesnake venom.[20][21] Following this research, he hypothesized that "evolved cognitive behavior in humans might persist for as long as 3 million years of relaxed selection" and to test this hypothesis he assessed the preschool children's selection of schematic trees as a form of refuge from predators and their overall refuge-seeking behavior on the playground,[22] particularly by investigating whether historical sexual-size dimorphism plays a role in influencing such behavior.[23] Subsequently, he examined the remembrances in pre-school children and adults of where "something scary" was located in their imagination relative to their beds at night[24][25] producing findings which reinforced his argument that ancestral sources of natural selection might continue to bias modern aesthetic expression.[15]

Innate pattern recognition

Coss has been acknowledged for his substantial work on the innate pattern-recognition ability of different species. He elucidated that the salient effects of glossy and sparkling surface finishes attract infants and toddlers,[26] increasing the possibilities of endangering their life by drowning or suffocation from plastic bags[27] and described that viewing water has calming effects on adults. [28] Furthermore, he discovered that wild California ground squirrels,[29] white-faced capuchin monkeys, [30] and bonnet macaques are capable of recognizing their snake predators[31] by their size and scale patterns and, for bonnet macaques, their leopard predators by the spots on their coat.[32][33] He later documented that young human infants are visually attracted reliably to snake-scale and leopard-spot patterns.[34]

Dendritic spine plasticity

Coss evaluated the provocative effects of two-facing eyes in humans and worked on the brain development[35] and behavior[36] of jewel fish which led him to a cover article in Science.[37] His joint study with A. Globus revealed that, due to social deprivation, the formation of dendritic branches in the optic tectum was arrested as was the experience-based shortening of dendritic spine stems.[38] Moreover, a single threatening experience shortened dendritic spine stems in the optic tectum,[39][40] and enhanced fish behavioral excitability in a manner analogous to PTSD in humans. In related research, he examined developing honeybees and observed the shortening of dendritic spine stems on calycal interneurons with progressive nursing and foraging experiences[41] and also during their first orientation flight.[42]

Evolutionary constraints

Coss also conducted a research series to explore the sources of natural selection mediating human brain evolution. This led to experiments measuring flight distances of wild horses in Arizona and African zebras to an approaching human.[43] The lower fear of wild horses compared with zebras led to his hypothesis that extensive human hunting in Africa might have led to an arm’s race for more competent hunting by humans to counter the increasingly evasive ability of wary prey.[44] Such an arm’s race for enhanced visual and spatial competence in hunting might explain the enlargement of the human parietal cortex for accurate spear throwing as well the ability of modern humans to translate mental images into figurative art with significant cultural impact. In contrast, the lack of figurative art among European Neanderthals, who likely hunted less wary game with thrusting spears during the Middle Paleolithic, might account for the smaller size of the Neanderthal parietal cortex that limited their artistic expression.[45]

Animal welfare

Apart from working on environmental aesthetics and behavioral evolution, Coss has contributed to animal welfare by examining the impacts of human intrusions in wildlife habitats. He advised graduate students studying African wild dogs and found that black-tailed deer in coastal California unaccustomed to humans were highly cautious when a human approached.[46][47] While working in India, he studied the sleeping-site selection of bonnet macaques living near human settlements,[48][49] and also examined the decline in tigers caused by the loss of palatable vegetation for large tiger prey.[50] Also in India, he studied crop-raiding by Asian Elephants,[51] and found that crop-raiding could be thwarted when elephant-activated tiger growls were played back to them.[52][53]

Bibliography

Books

  • Mood Provoking Visual Stimuli: Their Origins and Applications (1965)
  • Environmental Awareness: Evolutionary, Aesthetic & Social Perspectives (2005) ISBN 978-0757520112

Selected articles

  • Coss, R. G. (1968). The ethological command in art. Leonardo 1, 273-287. The Ethological Command in Art
  • Coss, R. G. & Perkel, D. H. (1985). The function of dendritic spines: A review of theoretical issues. Behavioral and Neural Biology, 44, 151-185. The function of dendritic spines: A review of theoretical issues
  • Coss, R. G. (1999). Effects of relaxed natural selection on the evolution of behavior. Geographic Variation in Behavior: Perspectives on Evolutionary Mechanisms (Foster, S. & Endler, J. A., eds). Oxford University Press, Oxford, 180-208.
  • Coss, R. G. (2003). The role of evolved perceptual biases in art and design. Evolutionary Aesthetics (Voland, E. & Grammer, K (eds). Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg, 69-130. Evolutionary Aesthetics
  • Coss, R. G. (2017). Drawings of representational images by Upper Paleolithic humans and their absence in Neanderthals reflect historical differences in hunting wary game. Evolutionary Studies in Imaginative Culture, 1(2), 15-38. [1]
  • Coss, R. G., and Keller, C. M. (2022). Transient decreases in blood pressure and heart rate with increased subjective level of relaxation while viewing water compared with adjacent ground. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 81, 101794. Transient decreases in blood pressure and heart rate with increased subjective level of relaxation while viewing water compared with adjacent ground

References

  1. ^ a b "Richard Coss — People in the Social Science Departments at UC Davis". psychology.ucdavis.edu.
  2. ^ Coss, Richard G.; Towers, Steven R. (January 1, 1990). "Provocative Aspects of Pictures of Animals in Confined Settings". Anthrozoös. 3 (3): 162–170. doi:10.2752/089279390787057586 – via Taylor and Francis+NEJM.
  3. ^ Clearwater, Yvonne A.; Coss, Richard G. (March 9, 1991). Harrison, Albert A.; Clearwater, Yvonne A.; McKay, Christopher P. (eds.). "Functional Esthetics to Enhance Weil-Being in Isolated and Confined Settings". Springer. pp. 331–348. doi:10.1007/978-1-4612-3012-0_31 – via Springer Link.
  4. ^ "Richard Coss". scholar.google.com.
  5. ^ Coss, Richard G. (March 9, 2005). "Environmental awareness: evolutionary, aesthetic, and social perspectives". Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company – via Google Books.
  6. ^ "APS Fellows". member.psychologicalscience.org.
  7. ^ "Richard Coss".
  8. ^ Coss, Richard G. (1978). "Perceptual Determinants of Gaze Aversion by the Lesser Mouse Lemur (Microcebus murinus), the Role of Two Facing Eyes". Behaviour. pp. 248–270 – via JSTOR.
  9. ^ Coss, Richard G. (1979). "Perceptual Determinants of Gaze Aversion by Normal and Psychotic Children: The Role of Two Facing Eyes". Behaviour. pp. 228–254 – via JSTOR.
  10. ^ "The Shell project of the Compagnie de l'Esthétique Industrielle in 1968: review and lessons from the unsuccessful project Didier Pacoud".
  11. ^ Barbour, Christopher G.; Coss, Richard G. (December 9, 1988). "Differential Color Brightness as a Body Orientation Cue". Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society. 30 (6): 713–717. doi:10.1177/001872088803000607 – via DOI.org (Crossref).
  12. ^ "Apparatus for measuring the dilation of the pupil".
  13. ^ "Mood Provoking Visual Stimuli: Their Origins and Applications".
  14. ^ Coss, Richard G. (1968). "The Ethological Command in Art". Leonardo. pp. 273–287. doi:10.2307/1571871 – via JSTOR.
  15. ^ a b Coss, Richard G. (March 9, 2003). Voland, Eckart; Grammer, Karl (eds.). Evolutionary Aesthetics. Springer. pp. 69–130. doi:10.1007/978-3-662-07142-7_4 – via Springer Link.
  16. ^ Coss, Richard G. (March 9, 2020). Carroll, Joseph; Clasen, Mathias; Jonsson, Emelie (eds.). Evolutionary Perspectives on Imaginative Culture. Springer International Publishing. pp. 185–212. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-46190-4_10 – via Springer Link.
  17. ^ Thompson, N. S. (May 31, 1995). "Perspectives in Ethology: Volume 11: Behavioral Design". Springer Science & Business Media – via Google Books.
  18. ^ "Individual Variation in the Antisnake Behavior of California Ground Squirrels (Spermophilus beecheyi)".
  19. ^ Ronald O. Goldthwaite; Coss, Richard G.; Owings, Donald H. (1990). "Evolutionary Dissipation of an Antisnake System: Differential Behavior by California and Arctic Ground Squirrels in Above- and Below-Ground Contexts". Behaviour. pp. 246–269 – via JSTOR.
  20. ^ Poran, Naomie S.; Coss, Richard G.; Benjamini, Eli (January 1, 1987). "Resistance of California ground squirrels (Spermophilus Beecheyi) to the venom of the northern Pacific rattlesnake (Crotalus Viridis Oreganus): A study of adaptive variation". Toxicon. 25 (7): 767–777. doi:10.1016/0041-0101(87)90127-9 – via ScienceDirect.
  21. ^ Coss, Richard G.; Kevin L. Gusé; Poran, Naomie S.; Smith, David G. (1993). "Development of Antisnake Defenses in California Ground Squirrels (Spermophilus beecheyi): II. Microevolutionary Effects of Relaxed Selection from Rattlesnakes". Behaviour. pp. 137–164 – via JSTOR.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  22. ^ Coss, Richard G.; Moore, Michael (October 1, 2002). "Precocious Knowledge of Trees as Antipredator Refuge in Preschool Children: An Examination of Aesthetics, Attributive Judgments, and Relic Sexual Dinichism". Ecological Psychology. 14 (4): 181–222. doi:10.1207/S15326969ECO1404_1 – via Taylor and Francis+NEJM.
  23. ^ Coss, Richard G. (July 1, 2016). "Sex difference in choice of concealed or exposed refuge sites by preschool children viewing a model leopard in a playground simulation of antipredator behavior". International Journal of Psychological Research. 9 (2): 8–19. doi:10.21500/20112084.2325 – via revistas.usb.edu.co.
  24. ^ Coss, Richard G. (September 1, 2021). "Something Scary Is Out There: Remembrances of Where the Threat Was Located by Preschool Children and Adults with Nighttime Fear". Evolutionary Psychological Science. 7 (3): 239–253. doi:10.1007/s40806-021-00279-9 – via Springer Link.
  25. ^ Coss, Richard G.; Blozis, Shelley A. (December 1, 2021). "Something Scary is Out There II: the Interplay of Childhood Experiences, Relict Sexual Dinichism, and Cross-cultural Differences in Spatial Fears". Evolutionary Psychological Science. 7 (4): 359–379. doi:10.1007/s40806-021-00289-7 – via Springer Link.
  26. ^ Coss, Richard G. (December 1, 1990). "All that Glistens: Water Connotations in Surface Finishes". Ecological Psychology. 2 (4): 367–380. doi:10.1207/s15326969eco0204_3 – via Taylor and Francis+NEJM.
  27. ^ Coss, Richard G.; Ruff, Saralyn; Simms, Tara (July 1, 2003). "All That Glistens: II. The Effects of Reflective Surface Finishes on the Mouthing Activity of Infants and Toddlers". Ecological Psychology. 15 (3): 197–213. doi:10.1207/S15326969ECO1503_1 – via Taylor and Francis+NEJM.
  28. ^ Coss, Richard G.; Keller, Craig M. (June 1, 2022). "Transient decreases in blood pressure and heart rate with increased subjective level of relaxation while viewing water compared with adjacent ground". Journal of Environmental Psychology. 81: 101794. doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2022.101794 – via ScienceDirect.
  29. ^ Coss, Richard G. (December 1, 1991). "Context and Animal Behavior III: The Relationship Between Early Development and Evolutionary Persistence of Ground Squirrel Antisnake Behavior". Ecological Psychology. 3 (4): 277–315. doi:10.1207/s15326969eco0304_1 – via Taylor and Francis+NEJM.
  30. ^ Coss, Richard G.; Cavanaugh, Cailey; Brennan, Whitney (March 9, 2019). "Development of snake‐directed antipredator behavior by wild white‐faced capuchin monkeys: III. the signaling properties of alarm‐call tonality". American Journal of Primatology. 81 (3): e22950. doi:10.1002/ajp.22950 – via DOI.org (Crossref).
  31. ^ Ramakrishnan, Uma; Coss, Richard G.; Schank, Jeffrey; Dharawat, Amita; Kim, Susan (April 9, 2005). "Snake Species Discrimination by Wild Bonnet Macaques (Macaca radiata)". Ethology. 111 (4): 337–356. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0310.2004.01063.x – via DOI.org (Crossref).
  32. ^ Ramakrishnan, Uma; Coss, Richard (January 1, 2000). "PERCEPTUAL ASPECTS OF LEOPARD RECOGNITION BY WILD BONNET MACAQUES (MACACA RADIATA)". Behaviour. 137 (3): 315–335. doi:10.1163/156853900502105 – via brill.com.
  33. ^ Coss, Richard G.; Ramakrishnan, Uma; Schank, Jeffrey (February 28, 2005). "Recognition of partially concealed leopards by wild bonnet macaques (Macaca radiata): The role of the spotted coat". Behavioural Processes. 68 (2): 145–163. doi:10.1016/j.beproc.2004.12.004 – via ScienceDirect.
  34. ^ Coss, Richard G.; Charles, Eric P. (March 9, 2021). "The Saliency of Snake Scales and Leopard Rosettes to Infants: Its Relevance to Graphical Patterns Portrayed in Prehistoric Art". Frontiers in Psychology. 12. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.763436/full – via Frontiers.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  35. ^ Coss, Richard G. (April 26, 2010). "Development of Face Aversion by the Jewel Fish (Hemichromis bimaculatus, Gill 1862)". Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie. 48 (1): 28–46. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0310.1978.tb00246.x – via DOI.org (Crossref).
  36. ^ Coss, Richard G. (July 9, 1979). "Delayed plasticity of an instinct: Recognition and avoidance of 2 facing eyes by the jewel fish". Developmental Psychobiology. 12 (4): 335–345. doi:10.1002/dev.420120408 – via DOI.org (Crossref).
  37. ^ Coss, Richard G.; Globus, Albert (1978). "Spine Stems on Tectal Interneurons in Jewel Fish Are Shortened by Social Stimulation". Science. pp. 787–790 – via JSTOR.
  38. ^ Coss, Richard G.; Globus, Albert (July 9, 1979). "Social experience affects the development of dendritic spines and branches on tectal interneurons in the jewel fish". Developmental Psychobiology. 12 (4): 347–358. doi:10.1002/dev.420120409 – via DOI.org (Crossref).
  39. ^ Wesley Burgess, J.; Coss, Richard G. (May 5, 1983). "Rapid effect of biologically relevant stimulation on tectal neurons: changes in dendritic spine morphology after nine minutes are retained for twenty-four hours". Brain Research. 266 (2): 217–223. doi:10.1016/0006-8993(83)90652-2 – via ScienceDirect.
  40. ^ Coss, Richard G.; Perkel, Donald H. (September 1, 1985). "The function of dendritic spines: A review of theoretical issues". Behavioral and Neural Biology. 44 (2): 151–185. doi:10.1016/S0163-1047(85)90170-0 – via ScienceDirect.
  41. ^ Coss, Richard G.; Brandon, John G.; Globus, Albert (June 16, 1980). "Changes in morphology of dendritic spines on honeybee calycal interneurons associated with cumulative nursing and foraging experiences". Brain Research. 192 (1): 49–59. doi:10.1016/0006-8993(80)91007-0 – via ScienceDirect.
  42. ^ Brandon, John G.; Coss, Richard G. (December 2, 1982). "Rapid dendritic spine stem shortening during one-trial learning: The honeybee's first orientation flight". Brain Research. 252 (1): 51–61. doi:10.1016/0006-8993(82)90977-5 – via ScienceDirect.
  43. ^ Brubaker, Alexali S.; Coss, Richard G. (March 9, 2015). "Evolutionary constraints on equid domestication: Comparison of flight initiation distances of wild horses (Equus caballus ferus) and plains zebras (Equus quagga)". Journal of Comparative Psychology. 129 (4): 366–376. doi:10.1037/a0039677 – via DOI.org (Crossref).
  44. ^ Brubaker, Alexali S.; Coss, Richard G. (July 9, 2016). Ebensperger, L. (ed.). "Effects of Single- and Mixed-Species Group Composition on the Flight Initiation Distances of Plains and Grevy's Zebras". Ethology. 122 (7): 531–541. doi:10.1111/eth.12500 – via DOI.org (Crossref).
  45. ^ "Drawings of Representational Images by Upper Paleolithic Humans and their Absence in Neanderthals Reflect Historical Differences in Hunting Wary Game".
  46. ^ "Effects of predator behavior and proximity on risk assessment by Columbian black-tailed deer".
  47. ^ "Effects of risk assessment, predator behavior, and habitat on escape behavior in Columbian black-tailed deer".
  48. ^ Ramakrishnan, Uma; Coss, Richard G. (July 1, 2001). "Strategies used by bonnet macaques (Macaca radiata) to reduce predation risk while sleeping". Primates. 42 (3): 193–206. doi:10.1007/BF02629636 – via Springer Link.
  49. ^ "A Comparison of the Sleeping Behavior of Three Sympatric Primates".
  50. ^ Ramakrishnan, Uma; Coss, Richard G.; Pelkey, Neil W. (July 1, 1999). "Tiger decline caused by the reduction of large ungulate prey: evidence from a study of leopard diets in southern India". Biological Conservation. 89 (2): 113–120. doi:10.1016/S0006-3207(98)00159-1 – via ScienceDirect.
  51. ^ Thuppil, Vivek; Coss, Richard G. (April 9, 2016). "Playback of felid growls mitigates crop-raiding by elephants Elephas maximus in southern India". Oryx. 50 (2): 329–335. doi:10.1017/S0030605314000635 – via Cambridge University Press.
  52. ^ Thuppil, Vivek; Coss, Richard G. (April 1, 2012). "Using Threatening Sounds as a Conservation Tool: Evolutionary Bases for Managing Human–Elephant Conflict in India". Journal of International Wildlife Law & Policy. 15 (2): 167–185. doi:10.1080/13880292.2012.678794 – via Taylor and Francis+NEJM.
  53. ^ Thuppil, Vivek; Coss, Richard G. (October 23, 2013). "Wild Asian elephants distinguish aggressive tiger and leopard growls according to perceived danger". Biology Letters. 9 (5): 20130518. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2013.0518. PMC 3971691. PMID 24026347 – via DOI.org (Crossref).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
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