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Changed the introduction to give a bit of background about LPC as well as give some historical relevance of its development, particularly with regards to it parallel development with the Green Revolution
Rewrote the section on LPC production. Cited relevant references and gave some yield values.
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[[File:Leafu.jpg|thumb|Leaf protein concentrate (Leafu) made from [[stinging nettles]]]]
[[File:Leafu.jpg|thumb|Leaf protein concentrate (Leafu) made from [[stinging nettles]]]]
'''Leaf protein concentrate (LPC)''' refers to the proteinaceous mass extracted from leaves. It can be a lucrative source of low-cost and sustainable protein for food as well as feed applications. Although the proteinaceous extracts from leaves have been described as early as 1773 by Rouelle<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rouelle |first=Hilaire Marin |date=1773 |title=Observations sur les fécules ou parties vertes des plantes, & sur la matiere glutineuse ou végéto animale. |journal=De l'imprimerie de Vincent.}}</ref>, large scale extraction and production of LPC was pioneered post the [[World War II]]. In fact, many innovations and advances made with regards to LPC production occurred in parallel to the Green Revolution<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pirie |first=N. W. |date=1942 |title=GREEN LEAVES AS A SOURCE OF PROTEINS AND OTHER NUTRIENTS |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/149251a0 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=149 |issue=3774 |pages=251–251 |doi=10.1038/149251a0 |issn=0028-0836}}</ref>. In some respects, these two technologies were complimentary in that the Green Revolution sought to increase agrarian productivity through increased crop yields ''via'' fertiliser use, [[Mechanisation of agriculture|mechanisation]] and genetically modified crops, while LPC offered the means to better utilise available agrarian resources through efficient protein extraction <ref>{{Cite book |last=Iyer |first=A. |url=https://abdn.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/discovery/delivery/44ABE_INST:44ABE_VU1/12198935660005941 |title=The revalorisation potential of invasive Scottish plants |publisher=University of Aberdeen |year=2021 |edition=ethesis |location=Aberdeen |pages=4-12}}</ref>.
'''Leaf protein concentrate (LPC)''' refers to the proteinaceous mass extracted from leaves. It can be a lucrative source of low-cost and sustainable protein for food as well as feed applications. Although the proteinaceous extracts from leaves have been described as early as 1773 by Rouelle<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rouelle |first=Hilaire Marin |date=1773 |title=Observations sur les fécules ou parties vertes des plantes, & sur la matiere glutineuse ou végéto animale. |journal=De l'imprimerie de Vincent.}}</ref>, large scale extraction and production of LPC was pioneered post the [[World War II]]. In fact, many innovations and advances made with regards to LPC production occurred in parallel to the Green Revolution<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pirie |first=N. W. |date=1942 |title=GREEN LEAVES AS A SOURCE OF PROTEINS AND OTHER NUTRIENTS |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/149251a0 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=149 |issue=3774 |pages=251–251 |doi=10.1038/149251a0 |issn=0028-0836}}</ref>. In some respects, these two technologies were complimentary in that the Green Revolution sought to increase agrarian productivity through increased crop yields ''via'' fertiliser use, [[Mechanisation of agriculture|mechanisation]] and genetically modified crops, while LPC offered the means to better utilise available agrarian resources through efficient protein extraction <ref>{{Cite book |last=Iyer |first=A. |url=https://abdn.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/discovery/delivery/44ABE_INST:44ABE_VU1/12198935660005941 |title=The revalorisation potential of invasive Scottish plants |publisher=University of Aberdeen |year=2021 |edition=ethesis |location=Aberdeen |pages=4-12}}</ref>.

== Sources ==
Over the years, numerous sources have been experimented. Pirie <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Morrison |first=J. E. |last2=Pirie |first2=N. W. |date=1961 |title=The large-scale production of protein from leaf extracts |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jsfa.2740120101 |journal=Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture |language=en |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=1–5 |doi=10.1002/jsfa.2740120101}}</ref> and Telek<ref>{{Cite book |last=Telek |first=Lehel |title=Leaf Protein Concentrates |last2=Graham |first2=Horace D. |date=1983 |publisher=AVI Publ. Co |isbn=978-0-87055-412-4 |editor-last=Telek |editor-first=L. |location=Westport, Conn |editor-last2=Graham |editor-first2=H. D.}}</ref> described LPC production using a combination of pulping and heat coagulation. Leaves are typically sourced from shrubs or agricultural wastes given their ease of access and relative abundance. Trees are generally considered a poor source of leaf mass for the production of LPC given restrictions on the ease of access. Fallen leaves / [[Plant litter|leaf litter]] have negligible protein-content and are of no extractive value <ref>{{Citation |last=Flindt |first=Mogens R. |title=Total Phosphorus, Nitrogen and Carbon in Leaf Litter |date=2020 |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-030-30515-4_11 |work=Methods to Study Litter Decomposition |pages=91–105 |editor-last=Bärlocher |editor-first=Felix |access-date=2023-06-22 |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-30515-4_11 |isbn=978-3-030-30514-7 |last2=Lillebø |first2=Ana I. |last3=Pérez |first3=Javier |last4=Ferreira |first4=Verónica |editor2-last=Gessner |editor2-first=Mark O. |editor3-last=Graça |editor3-first=Manuel A.S.}}</ref>.

Plants belonging to the [[Fabaceae]] family such as clover, peas and legumes have also been prime candidates for LPC production <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pandey |first=V. N. |date=1994 |title=Leaf protein content and yield of some Indian legumes |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/BF01088430 |journal=Plant Foods for Human Nutrition |language=en |volume=46 |issue=4 |pages=313–322 |doi=10.1007/BF01088430 |issn=0921-9668}}</ref>. While most plants have a mean leaf protein content of 4 to 6 % w/v. Fabaceae plants tend to have nearly double that value at 8 to 10% v/w, depending on the protein estimation method employed. Other non-traditional sources include agricultural wastes such as pea pods, cauliflower leaves, as well as invasive plants such as [[Ulex europaeus|Gorse]] ''(Ulex europeaus''), [[Cytisus scoparius|Broom]] (''Cytisus scoparius''), and [[Pteridium aquilinum|Bracken]] (''Pteridium aquilinum'') <ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Iyer |first=Ajay |last2=Bestwick |first2=Charles S. |last3=Duncan |first3=Sylvia H. |last4=Russell |first4=Wendy R. |date=2021-02-15 |title=Invasive Plants Are a Valuable Alternate Protein Source and Can Contribute to Meeting Climate Change Targets |url=https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fsufs.2021.575056/full |journal=Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems |volume=5 |doi=10.3389/fsufs.2021.575056 |issn=2571-581X}}</ref>.

⚫
==Methods of production==
LPC production processes are two-staged, with the first focusing on the expression of leaf juice or production of a leaf extract, and the second being the purification or protein recovery stage that recovers protein from the solution.

The most commonly employed method of leaf protein extraction is pulping / juicing <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Du |first=Lin |last2=Arauzo |first2=Pablo J. |last3=Meza Zavala |first3=Maria Fernanda |last4=Cao |first4=Zebin |last5=Olszewski |first5=Maciej Pawel |last6=Kruse |first6=Andrea |date=2020-01-23 |title=Towards the Properties of Different Biomass-Derived Proteins via Various Extraction Methods |url=https://www.mdpi.com/1420-3049/25/3/488 |journal=Molecules |language=en |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=488 |doi=10.3390/molecules25030488 |issn=1420-3049 |pmc=PMC7037764 |pmid=31979336}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Makkar |first=Harinder PS |last2=Francis |first2=George |last3=Becker |first3=Klaus |date=2008 |title=Protein concentrate fromJatropha curcas screw-pressed seed cake and toxic and antinutritional factors in protein concentrate |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jsfa.3248 |journal=Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture |language=en |volume=88 |issue=9 |pages=1542–1548 |doi=10.1002/jsfa.3248}}</ref>. Other assisted extraction methods have also been reported such as alkali treatment <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zhang |first=Chen |last2=Sanders |first2=Johan P. M. |last3=Xiao |first3=Ting T. |last4=Bruins |first4=Marieke E. |date=2015-07-22 |editor-last=Mao |editor-first=Jingdong |title=How Does Alkali Aid Protein Extraction in Green Tea Leaf Residue: A Basis for Integrated Biorefinery of Leaves |url=https://dx.plos.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0133046 |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=10 |issue=7 |pages=e0133046 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0133046 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=PMC4511586 |pmid=26200774}}</ref>, pressurised extraction, and enzyme treatment <ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last=Iyer |first=Ajay |last2=Guerrier |first2=Lisa |last3=Leveque |first3=Salomé |last4=Bestwick |first4=Charles S. |last5=Duncan |first5=Sylvia H. |last6=Russell |first6=Wendy R. |date=2022 |title=High throughput method development and optimised production of leaf protein concentrates with potential to support the agri-industry |url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11694-021-01136-w |journal=Journal of Food Measurement and Characterization |language=en |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=49–65 |doi=10.1007/s11694-021-01136-w |issn=2193-4126}}</ref> Each method comes with its own advantages although pulping produces the most “native” protein composition and does not require significant investment in complex machinery.

Alkali extraction has been employed with some success <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zhang |first=Chen |last2=Sanders |first2=Johan P.M. |last3=Bruins |first3=Marieke E. |date=2014 |title=Critical parameters in cost-effective alkaline extraction for high protein yield from leaves |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S096195341400292X |journal=Biomass and Bioenergy |language=en |volume=67 |pages=466–472 |doi=10.1016/j.biombioe.2014.05.020}}</ref> although it significantly affects lysine and threonine residues in the protein. Pressurised extraction have limited success. Enzyme treatment is another well reported method which targets the plant cell wall to aid the release of bound proteins. However, enzymes are generally more expensive compared to physical or chemical methods of protein extraction.

Recovering the protein from the extract however is most critical to the nutritive value of the LPC. Commonly reported methods were heat coagulation <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ostrowski |first=Henry T. |date=1979 |title=THE ISOLATION OF PROTEIN CONCENTRATES FROM PASTURE HERBAGE AND THEIR FRACTIONATION INTO FEED- AND FOOD-GRADE PRODUCTS |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1745-4549.1979.tb00575.x |journal=Journal of Food Processing and Preservation |language=en |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=105–124 |doi=10.1111/j.1745-4549.1979.tb00575.x |issn=0145-8892}}</ref>, acid precipitation <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Betschart |first=Antoinette |last2=Kinsella |first2=John E. |date=1973 |title=Extractability and solubility of leaf protein |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/jf60185a019 |journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry |language=en |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=60–65 |doi=10.1021/jf60185a019 |issn=0021-8561}}</ref>, ultrafiltration, solvent precipitation <ref name=":3" /> and chromatography.

Heat coagulation is the easiest and the oldest method of protein recovery, albeit the least preferred as most of the nutritive value of the LPC is lost. Acid precipitation is the most commonly employed method of protein recovery although it results in the loss of methionine and tryptophan in the LPC. Ultrafiltration is the most hardware demanding option for protein recovery although it serves more as a protein concentration step rather than complete recovery. Chromatographic methods may be used in tandem with ultrafiltration to help increase solute mass and subsequent recovery. Solvent precipitation is not often reported although it produces the highest protein recovery among other methods and preserves the nutritional integrity of the LPC. The extraction and purification methods are largely inter-compatible and may be employed depending on local facilities. Interestingly, the purity of the final LPC was influenced by the protein content in the initial leaf mass rather than the purification method employed. Furthermore, the amino acid composition of the LPC was dependent on the extraction method employed <ref name=":3" />.

In laboratory setups, protein fractions of 96% purity could be produced with a recovery of 56% w/w and an overall yield of 5.5% <ref name=":4" />. Telek on the other hand experimented with numerous tropical plants at a large scale using a combination of pulping and heat coagulation. Yields were around 3% with protein recoveries <50% <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nagy |first=Steven |last2=Telek |first2=Lehel |last3=Hall |first3=Nancy T. |last4=Berry |first4=Robert E. |date=1978 |title=Potential food uses for protein from tropical and subtropical plant leaves |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/jf60219a028 |journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry |language=en |volume=26 |issue=5 |pages=1016–1028 |doi=10.1021/jf60219a028 |issn=0021-8561}}</ref>.

Depending on the purity of the recovered protein, they are either called leaf protein extract (<60% w/w), leaf protein concentrate (>60% w/w), or leaf protein isolate (>90% w/w) <ref>{{Citation |last=Douillard |first=R. |title=Leaf protein for food use: potential of Rubisco |date=1994 |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4615-2652-0_10 |work=New and Developing Sources of Food Proteins |pages=307–342 |editor-last=Hudson |editor-first=B. J. F. |access-date=2023-06-22 |place=Boston, MA |publisher=Springer US |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-1-4615-2652-0_10 |isbn=978-1-4613-6139-8 |last2=de Mathan |first2=O.}}</ref>, although publications use these terms interchangeably.


== Composition ==
== Composition ==
Line 24: Line 44:


[[Lablab]] beans, ''[[Moringa oleifera]]'', [[Brassica oleracea|tree collards]] and [[Lespedeza|bush clover]] may also be used. Flavors of different species vary greatly.<ref name="Toensmeier" />
[[Lablab]] beans, ''[[Moringa oleifera]]'', [[Brassica oleracea|tree collards]] and [[Lespedeza|bush clover]] may also be used. Flavors of different species vary greatly.<ref name="Toensmeier" />

⚫
==Methods of production==
Generally, LPC is produced by pulping leaves and pressing the juice out, heating the juice to [[Coagulation|coagulate]] the protein, and filtering the protein out and drying it.<ref name="Toensmeier" /> To obtain the green and white fractions separately, two-step heat coagulation is the usual method: heating to approximately 60 °C coagulates the green protein, then heating to 80 °C coagulates the white protein. Alternative methods that have been proposed include [[flocculation]] using [[Polyelectrolyte|polyelectrolytes]], [[ultrafiltration]] and [[Differential centrifugation|ultracentrifugation]].<ref name=":2" />


== See also ==
== See also ==

Revision as of 07:13, 22 June 2023

Leaf protein concentrate (Leafu) made from stinging nettles

Leaf protein concentrate (LPC) refers to the proteinaceous mass extracted from leaves. It can be a lucrative source of low-cost and sustainable protein for food as well as feed applications. Although the proteinaceous extracts from leaves have been described as early as 1773 by Rouelle[1], large scale extraction and production of LPC was pioneered post the World War II. In fact, many innovations and advances made with regards to LPC production occurred in parallel to the Green Revolution[2]. In some respects, these two technologies were complimentary in that the Green Revolution sought to increase agrarian productivity through increased crop yields via fertiliser use, mechanisation and genetically modified crops, while LPC offered the means to better utilise available agrarian resources through efficient protein extraction [3].

Sources

Over the years, numerous sources have been experimented. Pirie [4] and Telek[5] described LPC production using a combination of pulping and heat coagulation. Leaves are typically sourced from shrubs or agricultural wastes given their ease of access and relative abundance. Trees are generally considered a poor source of leaf mass for the production of LPC given restrictions on the ease of access. Fallen leaves / leaf litter have negligible protein-content and are of no extractive value [6].

Plants belonging to the Fabaceae family such as clover, peas and legumes have also been prime candidates for LPC production [7]. While most plants have a mean leaf protein content of 4 to 6 % w/v. Fabaceae plants tend to have nearly double that value at 8 to 10% v/w, depending on the protein estimation method employed. Other non-traditional sources include agricultural wastes such as pea pods, cauliflower leaves, as well as invasive plants such as Gorse (Ulex europeaus), Broom (Cytisus scoparius), and Bracken (Pteridium aquilinum) [8].

Methods of production

LPC production processes are two-staged, with the first focusing on the expression of leaf juice or production of a leaf extract, and the second being the purification or protein recovery stage that recovers protein from the solution.

The most commonly employed method of leaf protein extraction is pulping / juicing [9][10]. Other assisted extraction methods have also been reported such as alkali treatment [11], pressurised extraction, and enzyme treatment [12] Each method comes with its own advantages although pulping produces the most “native” protein composition and does not require significant investment in complex machinery.

Alkali extraction has been employed with some success [13] although it significantly affects lysine and threonine residues in the protein. Pressurised extraction have limited success. Enzyme treatment is another well reported method which targets the plant cell wall to aid the release of bound proteins. However, enzymes are generally more expensive compared to physical or chemical methods of protein extraction.

Recovering the protein from the extract however is most critical to the nutritive value of the LPC. Commonly reported methods were heat coagulation [14], acid precipitation [15], ultrafiltration, solvent precipitation [8] and chromatography.

Heat coagulation is the easiest and the oldest method of protein recovery, albeit the least preferred as most of the nutritive value of the LPC is lost. Acid precipitation is the most commonly employed method of protein recovery although it results in the loss of methionine and tryptophan in the LPC. Ultrafiltration is the most hardware demanding option for protein recovery although it serves more as a protein concentration step rather than complete recovery. Chromatographic methods may be used in tandem with ultrafiltration to help increase solute mass and subsequent recovery. Solvent precipitation is not often reported although it produces the highest protein recovery among other methods and preserves the nutritional integrity of the LPC. The extraction and purification methods are largely inter-compatible and may be employed depending on local facilities. Interestingly, the purity of the final LPC was influenced by the protein content in the initial leaf mass rather than the purification method employed. Furthermore, the amino acid composition of the LPC was dependent on the extraction method employed [8].

In laboratory setups, protein fractions of 96% purity could be produced with a recovery of 56% w/w and an overall yield of 5.5% [12]. Telek on the other hand experimented with numerous tropical plants at a large scale using a combination of pulping and heat coagulation. Yields were around 3% with protein recoveries <50% [16].

Depending on the purity of the recovered protein, they are either called leaf protein extract (<60% w/w), leaf protein concentrate (>60% w/w), or leaf protein isolate (>90% w/w) [17], although publications use these terms interchangeably.

Composition

Whole leaf protein concentrate is a dark green substance with a texture similar to cheese. Approximately 60% of this is water, while the remaining dry matter is 9-11% nitrogen, 20-25% lipid, 5-10% starch and a variable amount of ash. It is a mixture of many individual proteins. Its flavour has been compared to spinach or tea.[18]

Because the colour and taste may make it unpalatable for humans, LPC can instead be separated into green and white fractions. The green fraction has proteins mainly originating from the chloroplasts, while the white fraction has proteins mainly originating from the cytoplasm.[19]

Applications

LPC was first suggested as a human food in the early 20th century, but it has not achieved much success, despite early promise. Norman Pirie, the Copley Medal winner from the UK, studied LPC and promoted its use for human consumption. He and his team developed machines for extraction of LPC, including low-maintenance "village units" intended for poor rural communities. These were installed in places such as villages in south India.[20]

The increasing reliance on feedlot based animal rearing to satisfy human appetites for meat has increased demand for cheaper vegetable protein sources. This has recently led to renewed interest in LPC to reduce the use of human-edible vegetable protein sources in animal feed.

Leaf protein has had successful trials as a substitute for soy feed for chickens and pigs.[21]

LPC from alfalfa can be included in feed for tilapia as a partial replacement for fish meal.[22]

Dietary issues

Leaf protein is a good source of amino acids, with methionine being a limiting factor.[23] It is nutritionally better than seed proteins and comparable to animal proteins (other than those in egg and milk).[18]

In terms of digestibility, whole LPC has digestibility in the range 65–90%. The green fraction has a much lower digestibility that may be <50%, while the white fraction has digestibility >90%.[19]

The challenges that have to be overcome using lucerne and cassava, two high density monoculture crops, include the high fiber content and other antinutritional factors, such as phytate, cyanide, and tannins.[23]

Lablab beans, Moringa oleifera, tree collards and bush clover may also be used. Flavors of different species vary greatly.[21]

See also

References

  1. ^ Rouelle, Hilaire Marin (1773). "Observations sur les fécules ou parties vertes des plantes, & sur la matiere glutineuse ou végéto animale". De l'imprimerie de Vincent.
  2. ^ Pirie, N. W. (1942). "GREEN LEAVES AS A SOURCE OF PROTEINS AND OTHER NUTRIENTS". Nature. 149 (3774): 251–251. doi:10.1038/149251a0. ISSN 0028-0836.
  3. ^ Iyer, A. (2021). The revalorisation potential of invasive Scottish plants (ethesis ed.). Aberdeen: University of Aberdeen. pp. 4–12.
  4. ^ Morrison, J. E.; Pirie, N. W. (1961). "The large-scale production of protein from leaf extracts". Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 12 (1): 1–5. doi:10.1002/jsfa.2740120101.
  5. ^ Telek, Lehel; Graham, Horace D. (1983). Telek, L.; Graham, H. D. (eds.). Leaf Protein Concentrates. Westport, Conn: AVI Publ. Co. ISBN 978-0-87055-412-4.
  6. ^ Flindt, Mogens R.; Lillebø, Ana I.; Pérez, Javier; Ferreira, Verónica (2020), Bärlocher, Felix; Gessner, Mark O.; Graça, Manuel A.S. (eds.), "Total Phosphorus, Nitrogen and Carbon in Leaf Litter", Methods to Study Litter Decomposition, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 91–105, doi:10.1007/978-3-030-30515-4_11, ISBN 978-3-030-30514-7, retrieved 2023-06-22
  7. ^ Pandey, V. N. (1994). "Leaf protein content and yield of some Indian legumes". Plant Foods for Human Nutrition. 46 (4): 313–322. doi:10.1007/BF01088430. ISSN 0921-9668.
  8. ^ a b c Iyer, Ajay; Bestwick, Charles S.; Duncan, Sylvia H.; Russell, Wendy R. (2021-02-15). "Invasive Plants Are a Valuable Alternate Protein Source and Can Contribute to Meeting Climate Change Targets". Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems. 5. doi:10.3389/fsufs.2021.575056. ISSN 2571-581X.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  9. ^ Du, Lin; Arauzo, Pablo J.; Meza Zavala, Maria Fernanda; Cao, Zebin; Olszewski, Maciej Pawel; Kruse, Andrea (2020-01-23). "Towards the Properties of Different Biomass-Derived Proteins via Various Extraction Methods". Molecules. 25 (3): 488. doi:10.3390/molecules25030488. ISSN 1420-3049. PMC 7037764. PMID 31979336.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  10. ^ Makkar, Harinder PS; Francis, George; Becker, Klaus (2008). "Protein concentrate fromJatropha curcas screw-pressed seed cake and toxic and antinutritional factors in protein concentrate". Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 88 (9): 1542–1548. doi:10.1002/jsfa.3248.
  11. ^ Zhang, Chen; Sanders, Johan P. M.; Xiao, Ting T.; Bruins, Marieke E. (2015-07-22). Mao, Jingdong (ed.). "How Does Alkali Aid Protein Extraction in Green Tea Leaf Residue: A Basis for Integrated Biorefinery of Leaves". PLOS ONE. 10 (7): e0133046. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0133046. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 4511586. PMID 26200774.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  12. ^ a b Iyer, Ajay; Guerrier, Lisa; Leveque, Salomé; Bestwick, Charles S.; Duncan, Sylvia H.; Russell, Wendy R. (2022). "High throughput method development and optimised production of leaf protein concentrates with potential to support the agri-industry". Journal of Food Measurement and Characterization. 16 (1): 49–65. doi:10.1007/s11694-021-01136-w. ISSN 2193-4126.
  13. ^ Zhang, Chen; Sanders, Johan P.M.; Bruins, Marieke E. (2014). "Critical parameters in cost-effective alkaline extraction for high protein yield from leaves". Biomass and Bioenergy. 67: 466–472. doi:10.1016/j.biombioe.2014.05.020.
  14. ^ Ostrowski, Henry T. (1979). "THE ISOLATION OF PROTEIN CONCENTRATES FROM PASTURE HERBAGE AND THEIR FRACTIONATION INTO FEED- AND FOOD-GRADE PRODUCTS". Journal of Food Processing and Preservation. 3 (2): 105–124. doi:10.1111/j.1745-4549.1979.tb00575.x. ISSN 0145-8892.
  15. ^ Betschart, Antoinette; Kinsella, John E. (1973). "Extractability and solubility of leaf protein". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 21 (1): 60–65. doi:10.1021/jf60185a019. ISSN 0021-8561.
  16. ^ Nagy, Steven; Telek, Lehel; Hall, Nancy T.; Berry, Robert E. (1978). "Potential food uses for protein from tropical and subtropical plant leaves". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 26 (5): 1016–1028. doi:10.1021/jf60219a028. ISSN 0021-8561.
  17. ^ Douillard, R.; de Mathan, O. (1994), Hudson, B. J. F. (ed.), "Leaf protein for food use: potential of Rubisco", New and Developing Sources of Food Proteins, Boston, MA: Springer US, pp. 307–342, doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-2652-0_10, ISBN 978-1-4613-6139-8, retrieved 2023-06-22
  18. ^ a b Pirie, N. W. (1966). "Leaf Protein as a Human Food". Science. 152 (3730): 1701–1705. Bibcode:1966Sci...152.1701P. doi:10.1126/science.152.3730.1701. ISSN 0036-8075. JSTOR 1718350. PMID 5328118.
  19. ^ a b Chiesa, Simone; Gnansounou, Edgard (2011). "Protein extraction from biomass in a bioethanol refinery – Possible dietary applications: Use as animal feed and potential extension to human consumption". Bioresource Technology. 102 (2): 427–436. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2010.07.125. PMID 20732807.
  20. ^ Fowden, Leslie; Pierpoint, Stan (1997). "Norman Pirie (1907-97)". Nature. 387 (6633): 560. doi:10.1038/42378. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 9177338. S2CID 19306465.
  21. ^ a b Toensmeier, Eric (2016). The Carbon Farming Solution: A Global Toolkit of Perennial Crops and Regenerative Agriculture Practices for Climate Change Mitigation and Food Security. Chelsea Green Publishing. p. 181. ISBN 978-1-60358-571-2.
  22. ^ Olvera-Novoa, Miguel A.; Campos, Silvia G.; Sabido, Mirna G.; Martínez Palacios, Carlos A. (1990). "The use of alfalfa leaf protein concentrates as a protein source in diets for tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus)". Aquaculture. 90 (3–4): 291–302. doi:10.1016/0044-8486(90)90253-J.
  23. ^ a b Hussein, Laila; El-Fouly, Mohamed; El-Baz, F. K.; Ghanem, S. A. (1999-01-01). "Nutritional quality and the presence of anti-nutritional factors in leaf protein concentrates (LPC)". International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition. 50 (5): 333–343. doi:10.1080/096374899101067. ISSN 0963-7486. PMID 10719564.

Bibliography

  1. Pirie, N. W (1971). "Leaf protein:its agronomy, preparation, quality and use". IBP Handbook. Vol. 20. Blackwell Scientific Publications.
  2. Pirie, N. W (1975). "Leaf protein: a beneficiary of tribulations". Nature. 253 (5489): 239–241. Bibcode:1975Natur.253..239P. doi:10.1038/253239a0. S2CID 4196894.

External links

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