Cow Knob salamander: Difference between revisions
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'''''Plethodon punctatus''''', commonly known as the '''Cow Knob salamander<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Mitchell |first=Joseph C. |title=Virginia's Endangered Species: Proceedings of a Symposium |publisher=McDonald and Woodward Publishing Company |year=1991 |editor-last=Karen |editor-first=Terwilliger |location=Blacksburg |pages=437–439 |chapter=Amphibians and Reptiles |chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/289526961}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Tucker |first=Robert B. |date=1998 |title=Ecology and natural history of the Cow Knob salamander, Plethodon punctatus Highton, in West Virginia |url=https://mds.marshall.edu/etd/1704/ |journal=Marshall University graduate thesis}}</ref>'''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Powell |first=Robert |url=https://archive.org/details/petersonfieldgui0000powe/mode/2up |title=Peterson Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians of Eastern and Central North America |last2=Conant |first2=Roger |last3=Collins |first3=Joseph T. |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |year=2016 |edition=4th |location=Boston |pages=88}}</ref> or '''white-spotted salamander<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Green |first=N. Bayard |url=https://archive.org/details/amphibiansreptil0000gree/mode/2up |title=Amphibians and reptiles in West Virginia |last2=Pauley |first2=Thomas K. |publisher=University of Pittsburgh Press |year=1987 |location=Pittsburgh |pages=75–76}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Highton |first=Richard |title=Catalogue of American Amphibians and Reptiles |year=1988 |pages=414 |chapter=Plethodon punctatus}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Petranka |first=James W. |url=https://archive.org/details/salamandersofuni00petr/mode/2up |title=Salamanders of the United States and Canada |publisher=Smithsonian Institution Press |year=1998 |location=Washington, London |pages=390–392}}</ref>''' (not to be confused with ''P. cylindraceus'', the [[white-spotted slimy salamander]]), is a species of [[salamander]] in the family [[Plethodontidae]]. It is [[endemic]] to high mountain forests on the border of [[Virginia]] and [[West Virginia]] in the [[United States]]. Nearly all occurrences are on [[Shenandoah Mountain]], [[Nathaniel Mountain]] and [[Great North Mountain]] in [[George Washington National Forest]]. It is threatened by [[habitat loss]] and [[climate change]].<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|date=2010-08-16|title=Projected Loss of a Salamander Diversity Hotspot as a Consequence of Projected Global Climate Change|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=5|issue=8|pages=e12189|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0012189|issn=1932-6203|pmc=2922335|doi-access=free|last1=Milanovich|first1=Joseph R.|last2=Peterman|first2=William E.|last3=Nibbelink|first3=Nathan P.|last4=Maerz|first4=John C.|pmid=20808442|bibcode=2010PLoSO...512189M}}</ref> While it is a rare species, it is abundant in small localities. |
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It is threatened by [[habitat loss]] and [[climate change]].<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2010-08-16|title=Projected Loss of a Salamander Diversity Hotspot as a Consequence of Projected Global Climate Change|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=5|issue=8|pages=e12189|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0012189|issn=1932-6203|pmc=2922335|doi-access=free|last1=Milanovich|first1=Joseph R.|last2=Peterman|first2=William E.|last3=Nibbelink|first3=Nathan P.|last4=Maerz|first4=John C.|pmid=20808442|bibcode=2010PLoSO...512189M}}</ref> While it is a rare species, it is abundant in small localities. |
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==Description== |
==Description== |
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==Ecology and behavior== |
==Ecology and behavior== |
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The salamanders are most active in the spring (April–June) and fall (September–October), sheltering during the harsher months of the summer and winter.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":4" /> In West Virginia, their peak season extends into the early summer.<ref name=":3" /> They forage on cool wet nights, prioritizing the forest floor but also venturing onto trees or rocks.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jacobsen |first=Carl D. |last2=Flint |first2=William D. |last3=Newman |first3=Jillian C. |last4=Brown |first4=Donald J. |date=2019 |title=Plethodon punctatus (Cow Knob salamander). Arboreal behavior |url=https://www.fs.usda.gov/research/treesearch/57835 |journal=Herpetological Review. |language=en |volume=50 |issue=1 |pages=110}}</ref> A wide range of small [[Invertebrate|invertebrates]] are taken as prey.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last=Fraser |first=Douglas F. |date=1976 |title=Coexistence of Salamanders in the Genus Plethodon: A Variation of the Santa Rosalia Theme |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1934813 |journal=Ecology |volume=57 |issue=2 |pages=238–251 |doi=10.2307/1934813 |issn=0012-9658}}</ref><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /> ''Plethodon punctatus'' is a [[Host (biology)|host]] to ''[[Cepedietta michiganensis]]'' (a [[ciliate]]) and ''[[Batracholandros magnavulvaris]]'' (a [[nematode]]), both of which are fairly benign gut parasites common among Appalachian salamanders.<ref name=":3" /> |
The salamanders are most active in the spring (April–June) and fall (September–October), sheltering during the harsher months of the summer and winter.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":4" /> In West Virginia, their peak season extends into the early summer.<ref name=":3" /> They forage on cool wet nights, prioritizing the forest floor but also venturing onto trees or rocks.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jacobsen |first=Carl D. |last2=Flint |first2=William D. |last3=Newman |first3=Jillian C. |last4=Brown |first4=Donald J. |date=2019 |title=Plethodon punctatus (Cow Knob salamander). Arboreal behavior |url=https://www.fs.usda.gov/research/treesearch/57835 |journal=Herpetological Review. |language=en |volume=50 |issue=1 |pages=110}}</ref> A wide range of small [[Invertebrate|invertebrates]] are taken as prey.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last=Fraser |first=Douglas F. |date=1976 |title=Coexistence of Salamanders in the Genus Plethodon: A Variation of the Santa Rosalia Theme |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1934813 |journal=Ecology |volume=57 |issue=2 |pages=238–251 |doi=10.2307/1934813 |issn=0012-9658}}</ref><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /> ''Plethodon punctatus'' is a [[Host (biology)|host]] to ''[[Cepedietta michiganensis]]'' (a [[ciliate]]) and ''[[Batracholandros magnavulvaris]]'' (a [[nematode]]), both of which are fairly benign gut [[Parasitism|parasites]] common among Appalachian salamanders.<ref name=":3" /> |
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Cow Knob salamanders are [[Direct development|direct developers]], mating via [[spermatophore]] in the late winter or early spring. A clutch of 7-16 eggs can be laid every other year, though the precise timing is unknown. Juveniles hatch in the fall and reach sexual maturity within 3 or 4 years, with females maturing later and at a larger body size.<ref name=":3" /> This species is not [[Animal migration|migratory]], and most adults have a range of only a few meters throughout their lifetime. |
Cow Knob salamanders are [[Direct development|direct developers]], mating via [[spermatophore]] in the late winter or early spring. A clutch of 7-16 eggs can be laid every other year, though the precise timing is unknown. Juveniles hatch in the fall and reach sexual maturity within 3 or 4 years, with females maturing later and at a larger body size.<ref name=":3" /> This species is not [[Animal migration|migratory]], and most adults have a range of only a few meters throughout their lifetime. |
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''Plethodon punctatus'' coexists alongside the ecologically similar [[Shenandoah Mountain salamander]] (''Plethodon virginia'', previously referred to ''[[Plethodon hoffmani]]''). The two species do not show any [[Competitive exclusion principle|competitive exclusion]], despite ''P. punctatus'' juveniles overlapping the size range of ''P. virginia'' adults. To reduce competition, the two species may be active at different times upon the arrival of ideal environmental conditions. ''P. punctatus'' tend to find refuge in shallow rockier soils, which may be more sensitive to surface temperature and humidity levels compared to the deep moist soils preferred by ''P. virginia''.<ref name=":5" /> |
''Plethodon punctatus'' coexists alongside the ecologically similar [[Shenandoah Mountain salamander]] (''Plethodon virginia'', previously referred to ''[[Plethodon hoffmani]]''). The two species do not show any [[Competitive exclusion principle|competitive exclusion]], despite ''P. punctatus'' juveniles overlapping the size range of ''P. virginia'' adults. To reduce competition, the two species may be active at different times upon the arrival of ideal environmental conditions. ''P. punctatus'' tend to find refuge in shallow rockier soils, which may be more sensitive to surface temperature and humidity levels compared to the deep moist soils preferred by ''P. virginia''.<ref name=":5" /> |
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== Conservation == |
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=== Threats === |
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''Plethodon punctatus'' occurs entirely within the protected area of [[George Washington and Jefferson National Forests|George Washington National Forest]], though some pressures still threaten the species. As the salamander is reliant on stable mountain forest ecosystems, the largest threat is [[logging]] within the forest, especially during peak salamander activity periods. To prevent population decline, logging should be restricted to discontinuous patches, road building should be minimized or eliminated, and replanting should emphasize trees other than [[Pinus strobus|white pine]].<ref name=":6" /> Another concern is defoliation from [[Invasive species|invasive]] insects such as [[Hemlock woolly adelgid|woolly adelgid]] (''Adelges tsugae'') and [[Lymantria dispar|spongy moth]] (''Lymantria dispar'').<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mitchell |first=Joseph |last2=Pauley |first2=Thomas |last3=Withers |first3=David |last4=Roble |first4=Steven |last5=Miller |first5=Brian |last6=Braswell |first6=Alvin |last7=Cupp |first7=Paul |last8=Hobson |first8=Christopher |date=1999-04-01 |title=Conservation Status of the Southern Appalachian Herpetofauna |url=https://digitalcommons.odu.edu/vjs/vol50/iss1/2 |journal=Virginia Journal of Science |volume=50 |issue=1 |doi=10.25778/33tx-fx91 |issn=0042-658X}}</ref> |
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''Plethodon punctatus'' has a particularly low heat tolerance among Appalachian salamanders.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Markle |first=Tricia M. |last2=Kozak |first2=Kenneth H. |date=2018 |title=Low acclimation capacity of narrow‐ranging thermal specialists exposes susceptibility to global climate change |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ece3.4006 |journal=Ecology and Evolution |language=en |volume=8 |issue=9 |pages=4644–4656 |doi=10.1002/ece3.4006 |issn=2045-7758 |pmc=PMC5938462 |pmid=29760904}}</ref> As a montane species with limited routes of [[Biological dispersal|dispersal]], it is particularly vulnerable to the effects of [[climate change]].<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last=Sutton |first=William B. |last2=Barrett |first2=Kyle |last3=Moody |first3=Allison T. |last4=Loftin |first4=Cynthia S. |last5=DeMaynadier |first5=Phillip G. |last6=Nanjappa |first6=Priya |date=2015 |title=Predicted Changes in Climatic Niche and Climate Refugia of Conservation Priority Salamander Species in the Northeastern United States |url=https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4907/6/1/1 |journal=Forests |language=en |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=1–26 |doi=10.3390/f6010001 |issn=1999-4907}}</ref><ref name=":9">{{Cite journal |last=Jacobsen |first=Carl D. |last2=Brown |first2=Donald J. |last3=Flint |first3=William D. |last4=Pauley |first4=Thomas K. |last5=Buhlmann |first5=Kurt A. |last6=Mitchell |first6=Joseph C. |date=2020-03-01 |title=Vulnerability of high-elevation endemic salamanders to climate change: A case study with the Cow Knob Salamander (Plethodon punctatus) |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2351989419301957 |journal=Global Ecology and Conservation |volume=21 |pages=e00883 |doi=10.1016/j.gecco.2019.e00883 |issn=2351-9894}}</ref> At intermediate rates of warming ([[RCP 4.5]]), 93<ref name=":9" />–100%<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" /> of suitable habitat is expected to be lost by 2050. Some shaded slopes may retain a suitable [[microclimate]], but these refugia would be isolated from each other, leading to an [[Extinction debt|unsustainable decrease in genetic diversity]]. In addition, climate change may bring ''Plethodon punctatus'' into greater competition with ''Plethodon cylindraceus'', an aggressive species which is more dominant in warm areas at lower elevation.<ref name=":9" /> |
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==References== |
==References== |
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Revision as of 15:27, 28 August 2023
| Cow Knob salamander | |
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Scientific classification 
| |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Amphibia |
| Order: | Urodela |
| Family: | Plethodontidae |
| Subfamily: | Plethodontinae |
| Genus: | Plethodon |
| Species: | P. punctatus
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| Binomial name | |
| Plethodon punctatus Highton, 1971 [1972]
| |
Plethodon punctatus, commonly known as the Cow Knob salamander[2][3][4][5] or white-spotted salamander[6][7][8] (not to be confused with P. cylindraceus, the white-spotted slimy salamander), is a species of salamander in the family Plethodontidae. It is endemic to high mountain forests on the border of Virginia and West Virginia in the United States. Nearly all occurrences are on Shenandoah Mountain, Nathaniel Mountain and Great North Mountain in George Washington National Forest. It is threatened by habitat loss and climate change.[9] While it is a rare species, it is abundant in small localities.
Description
The Cow Knob salamander is a fairly large plethodontid. The largest adults reach a maximum total length of 17.1 cm (6.7 in),[7][3] though most are smaller than 15.7 cm (6.2 in). Around half of the total length is tail.[3] The base coloration is dark brown or greyish-black. The sides and legs are colored with large white or cream spots, which may extend onto a portion of the belly. The back is typically speckled with smaller and more dispersed pale spots.[6] The species name ‘punctatus’ (“spotted”) is in reference to these dorsal spots.[6][7] The throat has a light pink coloration which transitions to the greyish belly.[3]
The white-spotted slimy salamander (Plethodon cylindraceus) is similar in size and color, but differs in many other respects. Plethodon punctatus can differentiated by its more slender build, slightly webbed toes, protuberant eyes, a higher number of costal grooves (usually 17–18), and a lighter throat.[3] It is also similar in appearance to Wehrle’s salamander (Plethodon wehrlei), though it lacks the red spots or brassy flecks often seen in that species.[6][7][3]
Habitat
Cow Knob salamanders are adapted to live in high-elevation hardwood forests with dense canopy cover and talus. Old-growth forests and hemlock stands are greatly preferred, while young pine monocultures and clearings are avoided.[2][4] They typically occur at an elevation of 900–1200 m (2952–3937 ft),[3] with some reports as low as 735 m (2401 ft).[2] They are particularly abundant on north-facing slopes with an ample supply of rocks for cover.[2][3][4] Rocks with large gaps underneath are the preferred form of refuge, followed by fallen logs.[4]
Ecology and behavior
The salamanders are most active in the spring (April–June) and fall (September–October), sheltering during the harsher months of the summer and winter.[3][8] In West Virginia, their peak season extends into the early summer.[4] They forage on cool wet nights, prioritizing the forest floor but also venturing onto trees or rocks.[10] A wide range of small invertebrates are taken as prey.[11][6][3][4][8] Plethodon punctatus is a host to Cepedietta michiganensis (a ciliate) and Batracholandros magnavulvaris (a nematode), both of which are fairly benign gut parasites common among Appalachian salamanders.[4]
Cow Knob salamanders are direct developers, mating via spermatophore in the late winter or early spring. A clutch of 7-16 eggs can be laid every other year, though the precise timing is unknown. Juveniles hatch in the fall and reach sexual maturity within 3 or 4 years, with females maturing later and at a larger body size.[4] This species is not migratory, and most adults have a range of only a few meters throughout their lifetime.
Plethodon punctatus coexists alongside the ecologically similar Shenandoah Mountain salamander (Plethodon virginia, previously referred to Plethodon hoffmani). The two species do not show any competitive exclusion, despite P. punctatus juveniles overlapping the size range of P. virginia adults. To reduce competition, the two species may be active at different times upon the arrival of ideal environmental conditions. P. punctatus tend to find refuge in shallow rockier soils, which may be more sensitive to surface temperature and humidity levels compared to the deep moist soils preferred by P. virginia.[11]
Conservation
Threats
Plethodon punctatus occurs entirely within the protected area of George Washington National Forest, though some pressures still threaten the species. As the salamander is reliant on stable mountain forest ecosystems, the largest threat is logging within the forest, especially during peak salamander activity periods. To prevent population decline, logging should be restricted to discontinuous patches, road building should be minimized or eliminated, and replanting should emphasize trees other than white pine.[2] Another concern is defoliation from invasive insects such as woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae) and spongy moth (Lymantria dispar).[3][12]
Plethodon punctatus has a particularly low heat tolerance among Appalachian salamanders.[13] As a montane species with limited routes of dispersal, it is particularly vulnerable to the effects of climate change.[9][14][15] At intermediate rates of warming (RCP 4.5), 93[15]–100%[9][14] of suitable habitat is expected to be lost by 2050. Some shaded slopes may retain a suitable microclimate, but these refugia would be isolated from each other, leading to an unsustainable decrease in genetic diversity. In addition, climate change may bring Plethodon punctatus into greater competition with Plethodon cylindraceus, an aggressive species which is more dominant in warm areas at lower elevation.[15]
References
- ^ Geoffrey Hammerson, Joseph Mitchell (2004). "Plethodon punctatus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2004: e.T59351A11921999. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2004.RLTS.T59351A11921999.en. Retrieved 17 November 2021.
- ^ a b c d e Buhlmann, Kurt A.; Pague, Christopher A.; Mitchell, Joseph C.; Glasgow, Robert B. (1988). "Forestry operations and terrestrial salamanders: techniques in a study of the Cow Knob salamander, Plethodon punctatus". Management of Amphibians, Reptiles, and Small Mammals in North America: Proceedings of the Symposium (USDA Forest Service General Technical Report RM-166). Flagstaff: USDA Forest Service. pp. 38–44.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Mitchell, Joseph C. (1991). "Amphibians and Reptiles". In Karen, Terwilliger (ed.). Virginia's Endangered Species: Proceedings of a Symposium. Blacksburg: McDonald and Woodward Publishing Company. pp. 437–439.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Tucker, Robert B. (1998). "Ecology and natural history of the Cow Knob salamander, Plethodon punctatus Highton, in West Virginia". Marshall University graduate thesis.
- ^ Powell, Robert; Conant, Roger; Collins, Joseph T. (2016). Peterson Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians of Eastern and Central North America (4th ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 88.
- ^ a b c d e Green, N. Bayard; Pauley, Thomas K. (1987). Amphibians and reptiles in West Virginia. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press. pp. 75–76.
- ^ a b c d Highton, Richard (1988). "Plethodon punctatus". Catalogue of American Amphibians and Reptiles. p. 414.
- ^ a b c Petranka, James W. (1998). Salamanders of the United States and Canada. Washington, London: Smithsonian Institution Press. pp. 390–392.
- ^ a b c Milanovich, Joseph R.; Peterman, William E.; Nibbelink, Nathan P.; Maerz, John C. (2010-08-16). "Projected Loss of a Salamander Diversity Hotspot as a Consequence of Projected Global Climate Change". PLOS ONE. 5 (8): e12189. Bibcode:2010PLoSO...512189M. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0012189. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 2922335. PMID 20808442.
- ^ Jacobsen, Carl D.; Flint, William D.; Newman, Jillian C.; Brown, Donald J. (2019). "Plethodon punctatus (Cow Knob salamander). Arboreal behavior". Herpetological Review. 50 (1): 110.
- ^ a b Fraser, Douglas F. (1976). "Coexistence of Salamanders in the Genus Plethodon: A Variation of the Santa Rosalia Theme". Ecology. 57 (2): 238–251. doi:10.2307/1934813. ISSN 0012-9658.
- ^ Mitchell, Joseph; Pauley, Thomas; Withers, David; Roble, Steven; Miller, Brian; Braswell, Alvin; Cupp, Paul; Hobson, Christopher (1999-04-01). "Conservation Status of the Southern Appalachian Herpetofauna". Virginia Journal of Science. 50 (1). doi:10.25778/33tx-fx91. ISSN 0042-658X.
- ^ Markle, Tricia M.; Kozak, Kenneth H. (2018). "Low acclimation capacity of narrow‐ranging thermal specialists exposes susceptibility to global climate change". Ecology and Evolution. 8 (9): 4644–4656. doi:10.1002/ece3.4006. ISSN 2045-7758. PMC 5938462. PMID 29760904.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link) - ^ a b Sutton, William B.; Barrett, Kyle; Moody, Allison T.; Loftin, Cynthia S.; DeMaynadier, Phillip G.; Nanjappa, Priya (2015). "Predicted Changes in Climatic Niche and Climate Refugia of Conservation Priority Salamander Species in the Northeastern United States". Forests. 6 (1): 1–26. doi:10.3390/f6010001. ISSN 1999-4907.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - ^ a b c Jacobsen, Carl D.; Brown, Donald J.; Flint, William D.; Pauley, Thomas K.; Buhlmann, Kurt A.; Mitchell, Joseph C. (2020-03-01). "Vulnerability of high-elevation endemic salamanders to climate change: A case study with the Cow Knob Salamander (Plethodon punctatus)". Global Ecology and Conservation. 21: e00883. doi:10.1016/j.gecco.2019.e00883. ISSN 2351-9894.