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{{short description|Activated, feeding stage in the life cycle of certain protozoa}}
{{short description|Activated, feeding stage in the life cycle of certain protozoa}}
A '''trophozoite''' (G. ''trope'', nourishment + ''zoon'', animal) is the activated, feeding stage in the life cycle of certain [[protozoa]] such as [[malaria]]-causing ''[[Plasmodium falciparum]]'' and those of the ''[[Giardia]]'' group.<ref name="Yaeger">{{cite book |last1=Yaeger |first1=Robert G. |title=Protozoa: Structure, Classification, Growth, and Development |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK8325/ <!-- |website=Medical Microbiology --> |publisher=University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston | veditors = Baron S |year=1996 |isbn=9780963117212 <!--ISBN-10: 0-9631172-1-1-->}}</ref> (The complement of the trophozoite state is the thick-walled [[microbial cyst|cyst]] form.)
A '''trophozoite''' (G. ''trope'', nourishment + ''zoon'', animal) is the activated, feeding stage in the life cycle of certain [[protozoa]] such as [[malaria]]-causing ''[[Plasmodium falciparum]]'' and those of the ''[[Giardia]]'' group.<ref name="Yaeger">{{cite book |last1=Yaeger |first1=Robert G. |title=Protozoa: Structure, Classification, Growth, and Development |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK8325/ <!-- |website=Medical Microbiology --> |publisher=University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston | veditors = Baron S |year=1996 |isbn=9780963117212 <!--ISBN-10: 0-9631172-1-1-->}}</ref> The complementary form of the trophozoite state is the thick-walled [[microbial cyst|cyst]] form. They are often different from the cyst stage, which is a protective, dormant form of the protozoa. Trophozoites are often found in the host's body fluids and tissues and in many cases, they are the form of the protozoan that causes disease in the host. <ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Aguirre García M, Gutiérrez-Kobeh L, López Vancell R | title = Entamoeba histolytica: adhesins and lectins in the trophozoite surface | journal = Molecules | volume = 20 | issue = 2 | pages = 2802–2815 | date = February 2015 | pmid = 25671365 | doi = 10.3390/molecules20022802 | doi-access = free }}</ref> In the protozoan, ''Entamoeba histolytica'' it invades the intestinal mucosa of its host, causing dysentery, which aid in the trophozoites traveling to the liver and leading to the production of hepatic abscesses.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = López-Soto F, León-Sicairos N, Reyes-López M, Serrano-Luna J, Ordaz-Pichardo C, Piña-Vázquez C, Ortiz-Estrada G, de la Garza M | display-authors = 6 | title = Use and endocytosis of iron-containing proteins by Entamoeba histolytica trophozoites | journal = Infection, Genetics and Evolution | volume = 9 | issue = 6 | pages = 1038–1050 | date = December 2009 | pmid = 19539057 | doi = 10.1016/j.meegid.2009.05.018 }}</ref>


⚫
==Life Cycle Stages==
They are often different from the cyst stage, which is a protective, dormant form of the protozoa. Trophozoites are often found in the host's body fluids and tissues and in many cases, they are the form of the protozoan that causes disease in the host. <ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Aguirre García M, Gutiérrez-Kobeh L, López Vancell R | title = Entamoeba histolytica: adhesins and lectins in the trophozoite surface | journal = Molecules | volume = 20 | issue = 2 | pages = 2802–2815 | date = February 2015 | pmid = 25671365 | doi = 10.3390/molecules20022802 | doi-access = free }}</ref> (The complement of the trophozoite state is the thick-walled [[microbial cyst|cyst]] form.) In the protozoan, ''Entamoeba histolytica'' it invades the intestinal mucosa of its host, causing dysentery, which aid in the trophozoites traveling to the liver and leading to the production of hepatic abscesses.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = López-Soto F, León-Sicairos N, Reyes-López M, Serrano-Luna J, Ordaz-Pichardo C, Piña-Vázquez C, Ortiz-Estrada G, de la Garza M | display-authors = 6 | title = Use and endocytosis of iron-containing proteins by Entamoeba histolytica trophozoites | journal = Infection, Genetics and Evolution | volume = 9 | issue = 6 | pages = 1038–1050 | date = December 2009 | pmid = 19539057 | doi = 10.1016/j.meegid.2009.05.018 }}</ref>
[[File:Malaria lifecycle.gif|thumb|Malaria Lifecycle]]


=== '''''Plasmodium falciparium''''' ===
⚫
==Life cycle stages==
The causative organism of malaria is a protozoan, ''Plasmodium falciparium'', that is carried by the female Anopheles mosquito <ref>{{Cite journal |last=White |first=Nicholas J |last2=Pukrittayakamee |first2=Sasithon |last3=Hien |first3=Tran Tinh |last4=Faiz |first4=M Abul |last5=Mokuolu |first5=Olugbenga A |last6=Dondorp |first6=Arjen M |date=February 2014 |title=Malaria |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(13)60024-0 |journal=The Lancet |volume=383 |issue=9918 |pages=723–735 |doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(13)60024-0 |issn=0140-6736}}</ref>. Malaria is recorded as the most common disease in Sub-Saharan Africa and some Asian countries with the highest number of death <ref>{{Citation |title=Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) Regional Office of the World Health Organization (WHO) |date=2018 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-94186-5_904 |work=The Grants Register 2018 |pages=584–584 |access-date=2023-11-27 |place=London |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK}}</ref>. Studies have shown the increased prevalence of this disease since 2015<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dhiman |first=Sunil |date=December 2019 |title=Are malaria elimination efforts on right track? An analysis of gains achieved and challenges ahead |url=https://idpjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40249-019-0524-x |journal=Infectious Diseases of Poverty |language=en |volume=8 |issue=1 |doi=10.1186/s40249-019-0524-x |issn=2049-9957}}</ref>. This protozoan has several other subspecies, with some causing diseases in humans with over 91,000 death in 2021 from malaria (''Plasmodium falciparium'') alone, which is a 77% increase from 2020 as reported by the World Health Organization (WHO)<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Walker |first=Naomi F. |last2=Nadjm |first2=Behzad |last3=Whitty |first3=Christopher J.M. |date=February 2014 |title=Malaria |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S135730391300337X |journal=Medicine |language=en |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=100–106 |doi=10.1016/j.mpmed.2013.11.011}}</ref>.
The causative organism of malaria is a protozoan, ''Plasmodium falciparium'', that is carried by the female Anopheles mosquito. This protozoan has several other subspecies, with some causing diseases in humans.


[[File:Balantidium LifeCycle.png|thumb|Life cycle of ''[[Balantidium coli]]'']]
[[File:Balantidium LifeCycle.png|thumb|Life cycle of ''[[Balantidium coli]]'']]
The Malaria lifecycle is divided into to phases:
Trophozoite and cyst stages are shown in the life cycle of malaria,
''[[Balantidium coli]]'' the causative agent of [[balantidiasis]].


# '''Human''': The infected female mosquito (usually Anopheles species) bites a human and injects sporozoites into the bloodstream during a bloodmeal<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kooij |first=Taco WA |last2=Matuschewski |first2=Kai |date=December 2007 |title=Triggers and tricks of Plasmodium sexual development |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mib.2007.09.015 |journal=Current Opinion in Microbiology |volume=10 |issue=6 |pages=547–553 |doi=10.1016/j.mib.2007.09.015 |issn=1369-5274}}</ref>. The sporozoites travel to the liver where they invade liver cells (hepatocytes) in the Exo-erythrocytic Cycle<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mitchell |first=Caroline M. |last2=McLemore |first2=Leslie |last3=Westerberg |first3=Katharine |last4=Astronomo |first4=Rena |last5=Smythe |first5=Kimberly |last6=Gardella |first6=Carolyn |last7=Mack |first7=Matthias |last8=Magaret |first8=Amalia |last9=Patton |first9=Dorothy |last10=Agnew |first10=Kathy |last11=McElrath |first11=M. Juliana |last12=Hladik |first12=Florian |last13=Eschenbach |first13=David |date=2014-03-20 |title=Long-term Effect of Depot Medroxyprogesterone Acetate on Vaginal Microbiota, Epithelial Thickness and HIV Target Cells |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jiu176 |journal=The Journal of Infectious Diseases |volume=210 |issue=4 |pages=651–655 |doi=10.1093/infdis/jiu176 |issn=0022-1899}}</ref>. The sporozoites in the infected liver cells ruptures into schizonts which enter into the blood of the individual (Erythrocytic Cycle). The schizonts mature and divide asexually to form thousands of merozoites<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Billker |first=O. |last2=Lindo |first2=V. |last3=Panico |first3=M. |last4=Etienne |first4=A. E. |last5=Paxton |first5=T. |last6=Dell |first6=A. |last7=Rogers |first7=M. |last8=Sinden |first8=R. E. |last9=Morris |first9=H. R. |date=March 1998 |title=Identification of xanthurenic acid as the putative inducer of malaria development in the mosquito |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/32667 |journal=Nature |volume=392 |issue=6673 |pages=289–292 |doi=10.1038/32667 |issn=0028-0836}}</ref> in the early trophozoite phase, which cause the malaria symptoms in humans. These mature and go through sexual reproduction, known as gametogenesis to produce the gametocytes (occurring in male and female forms)<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wipasa |first=Jiraprapa |last2=Elliott |first2=Salenna |last3=Xu |first3=Huji |last4=Good |first4=Michael F |date=October 2002 |title=Immunity to asexual blood stage malaria and vaccine approaches |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1440-1711.2002.01107.x |journal=Immunology &amp; Cell Biology |volume=80 |issue=5 |pages=401–414 |doi=10.1046/j.1440-1711.2002.01107.x |issn=0818-9641}}</ref> in the late trophozoite phase in the bloodstream that are picked up by other mosquitoes during blood meals<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rajagopalan |first=P. K. |date=2019-04-02 |title=Malaria Remains Unshaken and the Mighty Mosquito Remains Unbeaten |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.24321/0019.5138.201906 |journal=Journal of Communicable Diseases |volume=51 |issue=01 |pages=43–49 |doi=10.24321/0019.5138.201906 |issn=0019-5138}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gazzinelli |first=Ricardo T. |last2=Kalantari |first2=Parisa |last3=Fitzgerald |first3=Katherine A. |last4=Golenbock |first4=Douglas T. |date=2014-10-17 |title=Innate sensing of malaria parasites |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nri3742 |journal=Nature Reviews Immunology |volume=14 |issue=11 |pages=744–757 |doi=10.1038/nri3742 |issn=1474-1733}}</ref>.
⚫
In the [[apicomplexan life cycle]] the trophozoite undergoes schizogony (asexual reproduction) and develops into a [[Protozoal merogony|schizont]] which contains [[merozoites]].
# '''Mosquito''': The gametocytes, flagellated microgametocytes (males) and the unflagellated megagametocytes (females) are ingested during bloodmeal by mosquitoes, which then enter into the cyst phase, sporozoites and undergo a series of asexual reproduction. After a span of 10-18 days, the sporozoite moves to the mosquito’s salivary gland subsequent blood meal on another human, anticoagulant saliva is injected along with the sporozoites, which then migrate to the liver, initiating a new cycle<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2016 |title=Malaria: Control, Elimination, and Eradication |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4137/hpd.s16590 |journal=Human Parasitic Diseases |volume=8 |pages=11–15 |doi=10.4137/hpd.s16590 |issn=1179-5700}}</ref>.

=== ''Balantidium coli'' ===
⚫
''[[Balantidium coli]]'' is the causative agent of [[balantidiasis]]. In the [[apicomplexan life cycle]] the trophozoite undergoes schizogony (asexual reproduction) and develops into a [[Protozoal merogony|schizont]] which contains [[merozoites]].


The trophozoite life stage of ''[[Giardia lamblia|Giardia]]'' colonizes and proliferates in the small intestine. Trophozoites develop during the course of the infection into cysts which is the infectious life stage.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Einarsson E, Ma'ayeh S, Svärd SG | title = An up-date on Giardia and giardiasis | journal = Current Opinion in Microbiology | volume = 34 | pages = 47–52 | date = December 2016 | pmid = 27501461 | doi = 10.1016/j.mib.2016.07.019 }}</ref>
The trophozoite life stage of ''[[Giardia lamblia|Giardia]]'' colonizes and proliferates in the small intestine. Trophozoites develop during the course of the infection into cysts which is the infectious life stage.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Einarsson E, Ma'ayeh S, Svärd SG | title = An up-date on Giardia and giardiasis | journal = Current Opinion in Microbiology | volume = 34 | pages = 47–52 | date = December 2016 | pmid = 27501461 | doi = 10.1016/j.mib.2016.07.019 }}</ref>
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{{Reflist}}
{{Reflist}}


[[Category:Parasitology]]
[[:Category: Parasitology]]


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Revision as of 15:09, 7 December 2023

A trophozoite (G. trope, nourishment + zoon, animal) is the activated, feeding stage in the life cycle of certain protozoa such as malaria-causing Plasmodium falciparum and those of the Giardia group.[1] The complementary form of the trophozoite state is the thick-walled cyst form. They are often different from the cyst stage, which is a protective, dormant form of the protozoa. Trophozoites are often found in the host's body fluids and tissues and in many cases, they are the form of the protozoan that causes disease in the host. [2] In the protozoan, Entamoeba histolytica it invades the intestinal mucosa of its host, causing dysentery, which aid in the trophozoites traveling to the liver and leading to the production of hepatic abscesses.[3]

Life Cycle Stages

Malaria Lifecycle

Plasmodium falciparium

The causative organism of malaria is a protozoan, Plasmodium falciparium, that is carried by the female Anopheles mosquito [4]. Malaria is recorded as the most common disease in Sub-Saharan Africa and some Asian countries with the highest number of death [5]. Studies have shown the increased prevalence of this disease since 2015[6]. This protozoan has several other subspecies, with some causing diseases in humans with over 91,000 death in 2021 from malaria (Plasmodium falciparium) alone, which is a 77% increase from 2020 as reported by the World Health Organization (WHO)[7].

Life cycle of Balantidium coli

The Malaria lifecycle is divided into to phases:

  1. Human: The infected female mosquito (usually Anopheles species) bites a human and injects sporozoites into the bloodstream during a bloodmeal[8]. The sporozoites travel to the liver where they invade liver cells (hepatocytes) in the Exo-erythrocytic Cycle[9]. The sporozoites in the infected liver cells ruptures into schizonts which enter into the blood of the individual (Erythrocytic Cycle). The schizonts mature and divide asexually to form thousands of merozoites[10] in the early trophozoite phase, which cause the malaria symptoms in humans. These mature and go through sexual reproduction, known as gametogenesis to produce the gametocytes (occurring in male and female forms)[11] in the late trophozoite phase in the bloodstream that are picked up by other mosquitoes during blood meals[12][13].
  2. Mosquito: The gametocytes, flagellated microgametocytes (males) and the unflagellated megagametocytes (females) are ingested during bloodmeal by mosquitoes, which then enter into the cyst phase, sporozoites and undergo a series of asexual reproduction. After a span of 10-18 days, the sporozoite moves to the mosquito’s salivary gland subsequent blood meal on another human, anticoagulant saliva is injected along with the sporozoites, which then migrate to the liver, initiating a new cycle[14].

Balantidium coli

Balantidium coli is the causative agent of balantidiasis. In the apicomplexan life cycle the trophozoite undergoes schizogony (asexual reproduction) and develops into a schizont which contains merozoites.

The trophozoite life stage of Giardia colonizes and proliferates in the small intestine. Trophozoites develop during the course of the infection into cysts which is the infectious life stage.[15]

References

  1. ^ Yaeger RG (1996). Baron S (ed.). Protozoa: Structure, Classification, Growth, and Development. University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston. ISBN 9780963117212.
  2. ^ Aguirre García M, Gutiérrez-Kobeh L, López Vancell R (February 2015). "Entamoeba histolytica: adhesins and lectins in the trophozoite surface". Molecules. 20 (2): 2802–2815. doi:10.3390/molecules20022802. PMID 25671365.
  3. ^ López-Soto F, León-Sicairos N, Reyes-López M, Serrano-Luna J, Ordaz-Pichardo C, Piña-Vázquez C, et al. (December 2009). "Use and endocytosis of iron-containing proteins by Entamoeba histolytica trophozoites". Infection, Genetics and Evolution. 9 (6): 1038–1050. doi:10.1016/j.meegid.2009.05.018. PMID 19539057.
  4. ^ White, Nicholas J; Pukrittayakamee, Sasithon; Hien, Tran Tinh; Faiz, M Abul; Mokuolu, Olugbenga A; Dondorp, Arjen M (February 2014). "Malaria". The Lancet. 383 (9918): 723–735. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(13)60024-0. ISSN 0140-6736.
  5. ^ "Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) Regional Office of the World Health Organization (WHO)", The Grants Register 2018, London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, pp. 584–584, 2018, retrieved 2023-11-27
  6. ^ Dhiman, Sunil (December 2019). "Are malaria elimination efforts on right track? An analysis of gains achieved and challenges ahead". Infectious Diseases of Poverty. 8 (1). doi:10.1186/s40249-019-0524-x. ISSN 2049-9957.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  7. ^ Walker, Naomi F.; Nadjm, Behzad; Whitty, Christopher J.M. (February 2014). "Malaria". Medicine. 42 (2): 100–106. doi:10.1016/j.mpmed.2013.11.011.
  8. ^ Kooij, Taco WA; Matuschewski, Kai (December 2007). "Triggers and tricks of Plasmodium sexual development". Current Opinion in Microbiology. 10 (6): 547–553. doi:10.1016/j.mib.2007.09.015. ISSN 1369-5274.
  9. ^ Mitchell, Caroline M.; McLemore, Leslie; Westerberg, Katharine; Astronomo, Rena; Smythe, Kimberly; Gardella, Carolyn; Mack, Matthias; Magaret, Amalia; Patton, Dorothy; Agnew, Kathy; McElrath, M. Juliana; Hladik, Florian; Eschenbach, David (2014-03-20). "Long-term Effect of Depot Medroxyprogesterone Acetate on Vaginal Microbiota, Epithelial Thickness and HIV Target Cells". The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 210 (4): 651–655. doi:10.1093/infdis/jiu176. ISSN 0022-1899.
  10. ^ Billker, O.; Lindo, V.; Panico, M.; Etienne, A. E.; Paxton, T.; Dell, A.; Rogers, M.; Sinden, R. E.; Morris, H. R. (March 1998). "Identification of xanthurenic acid as the putative inducer of malaria development in the mosquito". Nature. 392 (6673): 289–292. doi:10.1038/32667. ISSN 0028-0836.
  11. ^ Wipasa, Jiraprapa; Elliott, Salenna; Xu, Huji; Good, Michael F (October 2002). "Immunity to asexual blood stage malaria and vaccine approaches". Immunology & Cell Biology. 80 (5): 401–414. doi:10.1046/j.1440-1711.2002.01107.x. ISSN 0818-9641.
  12. ^ Rajagopalan, P. K. (2019-04-02). "Malaria Remains Unshaken and the Mighty Mosquito Remains Unbeaten". Journal of Communicable Diseases. 51 (01): 43–49. doi:10.24321/0019.5138.201906. ISSN 0019-5138.
  13. ^ Gazzinelli, Ricardo T.; Kalantari, Parisa; Fitzgerald, Katherine A.; Golenbock, Douglas T. (2014-10-17). "Innate sensing of malaria parasites". Nature Reviews Immunology. 14 (11): 744–757. doi:10.1038/nri3742. ISSN 1474-1733.
  14. ^ "Malaria: Control, Elimination, and Eradication". Human Parasitic Diseases. 8: 11–15. 2016. doi:10.4137/hpd.s16590. ISSN 1179-5700.
  15. ^ Einarsson E, Ma'ayeh S, Svärd SG (December 2016). "An up-date on Giardia and giardiasis". Current Opinion in Microbiology. 34: 47–52. doi:10.1016/j.mib.2016.07.019. PMID 27501461.

Category: Parasitology

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