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==Research==
==Research==
In 1976, [[Fernando Nottebohm]] and Arnold reported the first example of large morphological sex differences in the brain of any vertebrate, in the neural circuit controlling singing in passerine birds. The report triggered a reevaluation of the magnitude and significance of biological sex differences in the structure and function of the brain, including in humans.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Cover story: The sexes: how they differ and why |journal=Newsweek |date=May 18, 1981}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |date=1995 |title=Landmark Papers |journal=Journal of NIH Research |volume=7 |pages=28-33, 52-58}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Schmeck |first1=HM, Jr. |title=“Brain may differ in women and men” |publisher=New York Times |date=March 25, 1980}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Harding |first1=C |title=Learning from Bird Brains: How the Study of Songbird Brains Revolutionized Neuroscience |journal=Lab Animal |date=2004 |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=28-33}}</ref> The report inspired the discovery of numerous other structural sex differences in the brains of other vertebrate species such as humans and other mammals.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gorski |first1=RA |title=The 13th J.A.F. Stevenson Memorial Lecture. Sexual differentiation of the brain: possible mechanisms and implications. |journal=Can. J. Phsyiol. Pharmacol. |date=1985 |volume=63 |pages=577-594}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=Breedlove , SM |chapter=Sexual Differentiation of the Brain and Behavior |editor1-last=Becker |editor1-first=JB |editor2-last=Breedlove |editor2-first=SM |editor3-last=Crews |editor3-first=D |title=Behavioral Endocrinology |date=1992 |publisher=MIT Press |location=Cambridge MA |pages=39-68}}</ref><ref name="foo" /> The identification of groups of cells that differed, in specific brain regions of males and females, moved the study of sexual differentiation to the cellular and molecular level, ultimately enabling the discovery of the molecular mechanisms of sexual differentiation in the brain. Arnold and co-workers uncovered hormonal control of cellular mechanisms (cell death, dendritic growth, cell growth, synapse elimination) that cause differential nervous system development in males and females.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sengelaub |first1=DR |last2=Forger |first2=NG |title=The spinal nucleus of the bulbocavernosus: First in androgen-dependent neural sex differences. |journal=Hormones and Behavior |date=2008 |volume=53 |pages=596-612}}</ref>
In 1976, [[Fernando Nottebohm]] and Arnold reported the first example of large morphological sex differences in the brain of any vertebrate, in the neural circuit controlling singing in passerine birds. The report triggered a reevaluation of the magnitude and significance of biological sex differences in the structure and function of the brain, including in humans.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Cover story: The sexes: how they differ and why |journal=Newsweek |date=May 18, 1981}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |date=1995 |title=Landmark Papers |journal=Journal of NIH Research |volume=7 |pages=28-33, 52-58}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Schmeck |first1=HM, Jr. |title=“Brain may differ in women and men” |publisher=New York Times |date=March 25, 1980}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Harding |first1=C |title=Learning from Bird Brains: How the Study of Songbird Brains Revolutionized Neuroscience |journal=Lab Animal |date=2004 |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=28-33}}</ref> The report inspired the discovery of numerous other structural sex differences in the brains of other vertebrate species such as humans and other mammals.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gorski |first1=Roger A. |title=The 13th J. A. F. Stevenson Memorial Lecture Sexual differentiation of the brain: possible mechanisms and implications |journal=Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology |date=June 1985 |volume=63 |issue=6 |pages=577–594 |doi=10.1139/y85-098 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=Breedlove , SM |chapter=Sexual Differentiation of the Brain and Behavior |editor1-last=Becker |editor1-first=JB |editor2-last=Breedlove |editor2-first=SM |editor3-last=Crews |editor3-first=D |title=Behavioral Endocrinology |date=1992 |publisher=MIT Press |location=Cambridge MA |pages=39-68}}</ref><ref name="foo" /> The identification of groups of cells that differed, in specific brain regions of males and females, moved the study of sexual differentiation to the cellular and molecular level, ultimately enabling the discovery of the molecular mechanisms of sexual differentiation in the brain. Arnold and co-workers uncovered hormonal control of cellular mechanisms (cell death, dendritic growth, cell growth, synapse elimination) that cause differential nervous system development in males and females.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sengelaub |first1=Dale R. |last2=Forger |first2=Nancy G. |title=The spinal nucleus of the bulbocavernosus: Firsts in androgen-dependent neural sex differences |journal=Hormones and Behavior |date=May 2008 |volume=53 |issue=5 |pages=596–612 |doi=10.1016/j.yhbeh.2007.11.008 }}</ref>


Arnold's study of a gynandromorphic (half genetic male, half genetic female) zebra finch suggested that all sex differences in brain and behavior are not caused by gonadal hormones, as had been believed.<ref name="foo" /> The two sides of the [[Gynandromorphism|gynandromorph]] brain differed in the degree of masculinity of the neural song circuit, implying that sex chromosomes operated within brain cells to contribute to sex differences.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Weintraub |first1=K |title=Split-sex animals are unusual, yes, but not as rare as you might expect |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/25/science/split-sex-gynandromorph.html |agency=New York Times |date=February 25, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ainsworth|first1=C |title=Sex and the single cell |journal=Nature |date=2017 |volume=550 |pages=S6-S8 |url = https://www.nature.com/articles/550S6a}}</ref> Arnold and collaborators used several mouse models (e.g, “[[Four Core Genotypes mouse model|Four Core Genotypes]]”) to show that mice with different sex chromosomes (XX vs. XY) have large sex differences caused by sex chromosomes, not by gonadal hormones; the sex chromosomes affect models of diverse diseases (autoimmune, metabolic, cardiovascular, cancer, neural and behavioral). Arnold’s research shifted the concepts for understanding the biological differences between the sexes,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ainsworth |first1=C |title=Sex redefined |journal=Nature |date=2015 |volume=518 |pages=288-291 |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/518288a}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schlinger |first1=BA |last2=Carruth |first2=L |last3=de Vries |first3=GJ |last4=Xu |first4=J |title=State-of-the art (Arnold) behavioral neuroendocrinology |journal=Hormones and Behavior |date=2011 |volume=60 |pages=1-3}}</ref> and contributed to the rationale for the US National Institutes of Health to increase focus on sex differences in preclinical research.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Clayton |first1=JA |last2=Collins |first2=FS |title=Policy: NIH to balance sex in cell and animal studies. |journal=Nature |date=May 15, 2014|volume=509 |issue=7500 |pages=282-3.}}</ref> It also led to the discovery of specific X and Y genes that cause sex differences in mouse models of disease, therefore increasing understanding of sex-biasing functions of genes on the mammalian X and Y chromosome.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dance |first1=A |title=Genes that escape silencing on the second X chromosome may drive disease |journal=The Scientist |date=March 4, 2020 |url=https://www.the-scientist.com/features/genes-that-escape-silencing-on-the-second-x-chromosome-may-drive-disease-67124}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Arnold |first1=AP |title=X chromosome agents of sexual differentiation |journal=Nature Reviews Endocrinology |date=2022 |volume=18 |pages=574-583}}</ref>
Arnold's study of a gynandromorphic (half genetic male, half genetic female) zebra finch suggested that all sex differences in brain and behavior are not caused by gonadal hormones, as had been believed.<ref name="foo" /> The two sides of the [[Gynandromorphism|gynandromorph]] brain differed in the degree of masculinity of the neural song circuit, implying that sex chromosomes operated within brain cells to contribute to sex differences.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Weintraub |first1=Karen |title=Split-Sex Animals Are Unusual, Yes, but Not as Rare as You’d Think |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/25/science/split-sex-gynandromorph.html |work=The New York Times |date=25 February 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ainsworth |first1=Claire |title=Sex and the single cell |journal=Nature |date=October 2017 |volume=550 |issue=7674 |pages=S6–S8 |doi=10.1038/550S6a }}</ref> Arnold and collaborators used several mouse models (e.g, “[[Four Core Genotypes mouse model|Four Core Genotypes]]”) to show that mice with different sex chromosomes (XX vs. XY) have large sex differences caused by sex chromosomes, not by gonadal hormones; the sex chromosomes affect models of diverse diseases (autoimmune, metabolic, cardiovascular, cancer, neural and behavioral). Arnold’s research shifted the concepts for understanding the biological differences between the sexes,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ainsworth |first1=Claire |title=Sex redefined |journal=Nature |date=1 February 2015 |volume=518 |issue=7539 |pages=288–291 |doi=10.1038/518288a }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schlinger |first1=Barney A. |last2=Carruth |first2=Laura |last3=de Vries |first3=Geert J. |last4=Xu |first4=Jun |title=State-of-the art (Arnold) behavioral neuroendocrinology |journal=Hormones and Behavior |date=June 2011 |volume=60 |issue=1 |pages=1–3 |doi=10.1016/j.yhbeh.2010.11.009 |pmid=21658535 }}</ref> and contributed to the rationale for the US National Institutes of Health to increase focus on sex differences in preclinical research.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Clayton |first1=Janine A. |last2=Collins |first2=Francis S. |title=Policy: NIH to balance sex in cell and animal studies |journal=Nature |date=May 2014 |volume=509 |issue=7500 |pages=282–283 |doi=10.1038/509282a }}</ref> It also led to the discovery of specific X and Y genes that cause sex differences in mouse models of disease, therefore increasing understanding of sex-biasing functions of genes on the mammalian X and Y chromosome.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dance |first1=A |title=Genes that escape silencing on the second X chromosome may drive disease |journal=The Scientist |date=March 4, 2020 |url=https://www.the-scientist.com/features/genes-that-escape-silencing-on-the-second-x-chromosome-may-drive-disease-67124 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Arnold |first1=Arthur P. |title=X chromosome agents of sexual differentiation |journal=Nature Reviews Endocrinology |date=September 2022 |volume=18 |issue=9 |pages=574–583 |doi=10.1038/s41574-022-00697-0 }}</ref>


Arnold has mentored 13 Ph.D. students, 24 postdoctoral fellows, and 6 M.S. students.
Arnold has mentored 13 Ph.D. students, 24 postdoctoral fellows, and 6 M.S. students.
Line 33: Line 33:


==Notable Publications==
==Notable Publications==
* Nottebohm F, Arnold AP. "Sexual dimorphism in vocal control areas of the song bird brain." ''Science''. 1976;194:211-3. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/959852/
* {{cite journal |last1=Nottebohm |first1=Fernando |last2=Arnold |first2=Arthur P. |title=Sexual Dimorphism in Vocal Control Areas of the Songbird Brain |journal=Science |date=8 October 1976 |volume=194 |issue=4261 |pages=211–213 |doi=10.1126/science.959852 |pmid=959852 }}
* SM Breedlove AM, Arnold AP. "Hormone accumulation in a sexually dimorphic motor nucleus of the rat spinal cord." ''Science'' 210 (4469), 564-566. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7423210/
* {{cite journal |last1=Breedlove |first1=S. Marc |last2=Arnold |first2=Arthur P. |title=Hormone Accumulation in a Sexually Dimorphic Motor Nucleus of the Rat Spinal Cord |journal=Science |date=31 October 1980 |volume=210 |issue=4469 |pages=564–566 |doi=10.1126/science.7423210 |pmid=7423210 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Nottebohm |first1=Fernando |last2=Arnold |first2=Arthur P. |title=Sexual Dimorphism in Vocal Control Areas of the Songbird Brain |journal=Science |date=8 October 1976 |volume=194 |issue=4261 |pages=211–213 |doi=10.1126/science.959852 |pmid=959852 }}
* Arnold AP, Gorski RA. "Gonadal steroid induction of structural sex differences in the CNS." ''Annual Review of Neuroscience''. 1984;7:413-42. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/959852/
* McCarthy MM, Arnold AP. "Reframing sexual differentiation of the brain." ''Nature Neuroscience''. 2011;14(6):677-83. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21613996/
* {{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=Margaret M |last2=Arnold |first2=Arthur P |title=Reframing sexual differentiation of the brain |journal=Nature Neuroscience |date=June 2011 |volume=14 |issue=6 |pages=677–683 |doi=10.1038/nn.2834 |pmid=21613996 }}
* Agate RJ, Grisham W, Wade J, Mann S, Wingfield J, Schanen C, Palotie A, Arnold AP. "Neural not gonadal origin of brain sex differences in a gynandromorphic finch.''" Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA''. 2003;100:4873-8. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12672961/
* {{cite journal |last1=Agate |first1=Robert J. |last2=Grisham |first2=William |last3=Wade |first3=Juli |last4=Mann |first4=Suzanne |last5=Wingfield |first5=John |last6=Schanen |first6=Carolyn |last7=Palotie |first7=Aarno |last8=Arnold |first8=Arthur P. |title=Neural, not gonadal, origin of brain sex differences in a gynandromorphic finch |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=15 April 2003 |volume=100 |issue=8 |pages=4873–4878 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0636925100 |pmid=12672961 }}
* Itoh Y, Melamed E, Yang X, Kampf K, Wang S, Yehya N, Van Nas A, Replogle K, Band MR, Clayton DF, Schadt EE, Lusis AJ, Arnold.A.P. "Dosage compensation is less effective in birds than in mammals." J''ournal of Biology'' 2007;6:2. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17352797/
* {{cite journal |last1=Itoh |first1=Yuichiro |last2=Melamed |first2=Esther |last3=Yang |first3=Xia |last4=Kampf |first4=Kathy |last5=Wang |first5=Susanna |last6=Yehya |first6=Nadir |last7=Van Nas |first7=Atila |last8=Replogle |first8=Kirstin |last9=Band |first9=Mark R |last10=Clayton |first10=David F |last11=Schadt |first11=Eric E |last12=Lusis |first12=Aldons J |last13=Arnold |first13=Arthur P |title=Dosage compensation is less effective in birds than in mammals |journal=Journal of Biology |date=2007 |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=2 |doi=10.1186/jbiol53 |pmid=17352797 }}
* Arnold AP. "The end of gonad-centric sex determination in mammals." ''Trends in Genetics''. 2012;28(2):55-61. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22078126/
* {{cite journal |last1=Arnold |first1=Arthur P. |title=The end of gonad-centric sex determination in mammals |journal=Trends in Genetics |date=February 2012 |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=55–61 |doi=10.1016/j.tig.2011.10.004 |pmid=22078126 }}
* Arnold AP. "A general theory of sexual differentiation." ''Journal of Neuroscience Research''. 2017;95(1-2):291-300. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27870435/
* {{cite journal |last1=Arnold |first1=Arthur P. |title=A general theory of sexual differentiation |journal=Journal of Neuroscience Research |date=2 January 2017 |volume=95 |issue=1-2 |pages=291–300 |doi=10.1002/jnr.23884 |pmid=27870435 }}
* Arnold AP. "Four Core Genotypes and XY* mouse models: Update on impact on SABV research." ''Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews'', 2020; 119:1-8. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32980399/
* {{cite journal |last1=Arnold |first1=Arthur P. |title=Four Core Genotypes and XY* mouse models: Update on impact on SABV research |journal=Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews |date=December 2020 |volume=119 |pages=1–8 |doi=10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.09.021 |pmid=32980399 }}
* Arnold AP. "X chromosome agents of sexual differentiation". ''Nature Reviews Endocrinology''. 2022; 18(9):574-583. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35705742/
* {{cite journal |last1=Arnold |first1=Arthur P. |title=X chromosome agents of sexual differentiation |journal=Nature Reviews Endocrinology |date=September 2022 |volume=18 |issue=9 |pages=574–583 |doi=10.1038/s41574-022-00697-0 |pmid=35705742 }}


==References==
==References==

Revision as of 12:01, 25 January 2024

Dr. Arthur P. Arnold
Dr. Arthur P. Arnold

Arthur Palmer Arnold (born March 16, 1946) is an American biologist who specializes in sex differences in physiology and disease, genetics, neuroendocrinology, and behavior. He is Distinguished Professor of Integrative Biology & Physiology at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA). His research has included the discovery of large structural sex differences in the central nervous system, and he studies of how gonadal hormones and sex chromosome genes cause sex differences in numerous tissues. His research program has suggested revisions to concepts of mammalian sexual differentiation and forms a foundation for understanding sex difference in disease.[1] Arnold was born in Philadelphia.

Career

Source:[1]

Arnold received an A.B. degree in Psychology from Grinnell College (1967) and Ph.D. in Neurobiology and Behavior from The Rockefeller University (1974), where he was mentored by Fernando Nottebohm, Peter Marler, Donald Pfaff, Bruce McEwen and Hiroshi Asanuma.[2] Since 1976 he has been on the faculty at UCLA, serving as Associate Director of the UCLA Brain Research Institute (1989-2001), Chair of the Department of Integrative Biology & Physiology (2011-2009), and Director of the UCLA Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology of the Brain Research Institute (2001-2017). Arnold was the inaugural President of the Society for Behavior Neuroendocrinoloogy (1997-1999). Arnold co-founded the Organization for the Study of Sex Differences (OSSD, 2006, https://www.ossdweb.org/founders) and was Founding Editor-in-Chief of the OSSD’s official journal, Biology of Sex Differences (2010-2018).

Research

In 1976, Fernando Nottebohm and Arnold reported the first example of large morphological sex differences in the brain of any vertebrate, in the neural circuit controlling singing in passerine birds. The report triggered a reevaluation of the magnitude and significance of biological sex differences in the structure and function of the brain, including in humans.[3][4][5][6] The report inspired the discovery of numerous other structural sex differences in the brains of other vertebrate species such as humans and other mammals.[7][8][1] The identification of groups of cells that differed, in specific brain regions of males and females, moved the study of sexual differentiation to the cellular and molecular level, ultimately enabling the discovery of the molecular mechanisms of sexual differentiation in the brain. Arnold and co-workers uncovered hormonal control of cellular mechanisms (cell death, dendritic growth, cell growth, synapse elimination) that cause differential nervous system development in males and females.[9]

Arnold's study of a gynandromorphic (half genetic male, half genetic female) zebra finch suggested that all sex differences in brain and behavior are not caused by gonadal hormones, as had been believed.[1] The two sides of the gynandromorph brain differed in the degree of masculinity of the neural song circuit, implying that sex chromosomes operated within brain cells to contribute to sex differences.[10][11] Arnold and collaborators used several mouse models (e.g, “Four Core Genotypes”) to show that mice with different sex chromosomes (XX vs. XY) have large sex differences caused by sex chromosomes, not by gonadal hormones; the sex chromosomes affect models of diverse diseases (autoimmune, metabolic, cardiovascular, cancer, neural and behavioral). Arnold’s research shifted the concepts for understanding the biological differences between the sexes,[12][13] and contributed to the rationale for the US National Institutes of Health to increase focus on sex differences in preclinical research.[14] It also led to the discovery of specific X and Y genes that cause sex differences in mouse models of disease, therefore increasing understanding of sex-biasing functions of genes on the mammalian X and Y chromosome.[15][16]

Arnold has mentored 13 Ph.D. students, 24 postdoctoral fellows, and 6 M.S. students.

Awards and Honors

  • Phi Beta Kappa, 1966
  • Fellow, John Simon Guggenheim Foundation, 1998
  • Fellow, American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1998
  • Inaugural President, Society for Behavioral Neuroendocrinology, 1997-1999, https://sbn.org/about/presidents.aspx
  • Daniel S. Lehrman Lifetime Achievement Award from Society for Behavioral Neuroendocrinology, 2010, https://sbn.org/awards/daniel-s-lehrman-award.aspx
  • Frank Beach Lecture, University of California, Berkeley, 1988
  • Magoun Lecture, UCLA Brain Research Institute, 2003
  • Robert Goy Lecture, University of Wisconsin Primate Center, 2016
  • Charles Sawyer Distinguished Lecture, UCLA, 2019
  • Arthur Arnold Lecture established in 2018 by Organization for the Study of Sex Differences
  • Arthur Arnold Innovator Lecture established in 2019 by the Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology of the UCLA Brain Research Institute.

Notable Publications

  • Nottebohm, Fernando; Arnold, Arthur P. (8 October 1976). "Sexual Dimorphism in Vocal Control Areas of the Songbird Brain". Science. 194 (4261): 211–213. doi:10.1126/science.959852. PMID 959852.
  • Breedlove, S. Marc; Arnold, Arthur P. (31 October 1980). "Hormone Accumulation in a Sexually Dimorphic Motor Nucleus of the Rat Spinal Cord". Science. 210 (4469): 564–566. doi:10.1126/science.7423210. PMID 7423210.
  • Nottebohm, Fernando; Arnold, Arthur P. (8 October 1976). "Sexual Dimorphism in Vocal Control Areas of the Songbird Brain". Science. 194 (4261): 211–213. doi:10.1126/science.959852. PMID 959852.
  • McCarthy, Margaret M; Arnold, Arthur P (June 2011). "Reframing sexual differentiation of the brain". Nature Neuroscience. 14 (6): 677–683. doi:10.1038/nn.2834. PMID 21613996.
  • Agate, Robert J.; Grisham, William; Wade, Juli; Mann, Suzanne; Wingfield, John; Schanen, Carolyn; Palotie, Aarno; Arnold, Arthur P. (15 April 2003). "Neural, not gonadal, origin of brain sex differences in a gynandromorphic finch". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 100 (8): 4873–4878. doi:10.1073/pnas.0636925100. PMID 12672961.
  • Itoh, Yuichiro; Melamed, Esther; Yang, Xia; Kampf, Kathy; Wang, Susanna; Yehya, Nadir; Van Nas, Atila; Replogle, Kirstin; Band, Mark R; Clayton, David F; Schadt, Eric E; Lusis, Aldons J; Arnold, Arthur P (2007). "Dosage compensation is less effective in birds than in mammals". Journal of Biology. 6 (1): 2. doi:10.1186/jbiol53. PMID 17352797.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  • Arnold, Arthur P. (February 2012). "The end of gonad-centric sex determination in mammals". Trends in Genetics. 28 (2): 55–61. doi:10.1016/j.tig.2011.10.004. PMID 22078126.
  • Arnold, Arthur P. (2 January 2017). "A general theory of sexual differentiation". Journal of Neuroscience Research. 95 (1–2): 291–300. doi:10.1002/jnr.23884. PMID 27870435.
  • Arnold, Arthur P. (December 2020). "Four Core Genotypes and XY* mouse models: Update on impact on SABV research". Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews. 119: 1–8. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.09.021. PMID 32980399.
  • Arnold, Arthur P. (September 2022). "X chromosome agents of sexual differentiation". Nature Reviews Endocrinology. 18 (9): 574–583. doi:10.1038/s41574-022-00697-0. PMID 35705742.

References

  1. ^ a b c d Schlinger BA (2022). "Arthur P. Arnold". In Nelson, RJ; Weil, ZM (eds.). Biographical History of Behavioral Neuroendocrinology. Springer Verlag.
  2. ^ Mackel, R; Pavlides, C. "Hiroshi Asanuma (1926-2000)". Neuroreport 2000. 11 (15): A5-6. PMID 11059891.
  3. ^ "Cover story: The sexes: how they differ and why". Newsweek. May 18, 1981.
  4. ^ "Landmark Papers". Journal of NIH Research. 7: 28–33, 52–58. 1995.
  5. ^ Schmeck, HM, Jr. (March 25, 1980). ""Brain may differ in women and men"". New York Times.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  6. ^ Harding, C (2004). "Learning from Bird Brains: How the Study of Songbird Brains Revolutionized Neuroscience". Lab Animal. 33 (5): 28–33.
  7. ^ Gorski, Roger A. (June 1985). "The 13th J. A. F. Stevenson Memorial Lecture Sexual differentiation of the brain: possible mechanisms and implications". Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology. 63 (6): 577–594. doi:10.1139/y85-098.
  8. ^ Breedlove , SM (1992). "Sexual Differentiation of the Brain and Behavior". In Becker, JB; Breedlove, SM; Crews, D (eds.). Behavioral Endocrinology. Cambridge MA: MIT Press. pp. 39–68.
  9. ^ Sengelaub, Dale R.; Forger, Nancy G. (May 2008). "The spinal nucleus of the bulbocavernosus: Firsts in androgen-dependent neural sex differences". Hormones and Behavior. 53 (5): 596–612. doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2007.11.008.
  10. ^ Weintraub, Karen (25 February 2019). "Split-Sex Animals Are Unusual, Yes, but Not as Rare as You'd Think". The New York Times.
  11. ^ Ainsworth, Claire (October 2017). "Sex and the single cell". Nature. 550 (7674): S6–S8. doi:10.1038/550S6a.
  12. ^ Ainsworth, Claire (1 February 2015). "Sex redefined". Nature. 518 (7539): 288–291. doi:10.1038/518288a.
  13. ^ Schlinger, Barney A.; Carruth, Laura; de Vries, Geert J.; Xu, Jun (June 2011). "State-of-the art (Arnold) behavioral neuroendocrinology". Hormones and Behavior. 60 (1): 1–3. doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2010.11.009. PMID 21658535.
  14. ^ Clayton, Janine A.; Collins, Francis S. (May 2014). "Policy: NIH to balance sex in cell and animal studies". Nature. 509 (7500): 282–283. doi:10.1038/509282a.
  15. ^ Dance, A (March 4, 2020). "Genes that escape silencing on the second X chromosome may drive disease". The Scientist.
  16. ^ Arnold, Arthur P. (September 2022). "X chromosome agents of sexual differentiation". Nature Reviews Endocrinology. 18 (9): 574–583. doi:10.1038/s41574-022-00697-0.

External links

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