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A House Wren feeds chicks in a nest box, and towards the end of the video, removes a fecal sac

A fecal sac (also spelled faecal sac) is a mucous membrane, generally white or clear with a dark end,^[1] that surrounds the feces of some species of nestling birds.^[2] It allows parent birds to more easily remove fecal material from the nest. The nestling usually produces a fecal sac within seconds of being fed; if not, a waiting adult may prod around the youngster's cloaca to stimulate excretion.^[3] Young birds of some species adopt specific postures or engage in specific behaviors to signal that they are producing fecal sacs.^[4] For example, nestling Curve-billed Thrashers raise their posteriors in the air, while young Cactus Wrens shake their bodies.^[5] Other species deposit the sacs on the rim of the nest, where they are likely to be seen (and removed) by parent birds.^[4]

Not all species generate fecal sacs. They are most prevalent in passerines and their near relatives, which have young that remain in the nest for longer periods.^[3] In some species, the fecal sacs of small nestlings are eaten by their parents. In other species, and when nestlings are older, sacs are typically taken some distance from the nest and discarded.^[6] Young birds generally stop producing fecal sacs shortly before they fledge.^[7]

Removal of fecal material helps to improve nest sanitation, which in turn helps to increase the likelihood that nestlings will remain healthy.^[8] It also helps to reduce the chance that predators will see it or smell it and thereby find the nest.^[9] There is evidence that parent birds of some species gain a nutritional benefit from eating the fecal sacs; studies have shown that females — which tend to be more nutritionally stressed than their mates — are far more likely to consume sacs than are males.^[10] Even brood parasites such as Brown-headed Cowbirds, which do not care for their own offspring, have been documented swallowing the fecal sacs of nestlings of their host species.^[11]

Studies have shown that avian polyomavirus can be passed from offspring to parent birds through the removal of fecal sacs, particularly if the sacs are swallowed. Because females of many species remove more fecal sacs than do their mates, and because they are more likely to swallow those sacs when the nestlings are small, they are particularly susceptible to this method of disease transmission.^[12]

Scientists can use fecal sacs to learn a number of things about individual birds. Examination of the contents of the sac can reveal details of the nestling's diet,^[13]^[14] and can indicate what contaminants the young bird has been exposed to.^[15] The presence of an adult bird carrying a fecal sac is used in bird censuses as an indication of breeding.^[16]

References

^ Choiniere, Joseph; Mowbray Golding, Claire; Vezo, Tom (2005). What's That Bird? : Getting to Know the Birds Around You, Coast-to-Coast. North Adams, MA: Storey Publishing. p. 33. ISBN 1580175546.
^ Elphick, Chris; Dunning, Jr, John B. (2001). The Sibley Guide to Bird Life & Behaviour. London: Christopher Helm. p. 78. ISBN 0713662506. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |editors= ignored (|editor= suggested) (help)
^ ^a ^b A Dictionary of Birds. Calton, Staffordshire: T & AD Poyser. 1985. p. 433. ISBN 0856610399. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |editors= ignored (|editor= suggested) (help)
^ ^a ^b O'Connor, Raymond J. (1984). The Growth and Development of Birds. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Interscience. p. 174. ISBN 0471903450.
^ Ricklefs, Robert E. "Behavior of Young Cactus Wrens and Curve-billed Thrashers" (PDF). The Wilson Bulletin. 78 (1): 47–56.
^ Ehrlich, Paul R; Dobkin, David S; Wheye, Darryl; Pimm, Stuart L. (1994). The Birdwatcher's Handbook. Oxford University Press. p. 75. ISBN 0198584075.
^ Mockler, Mike (1992). Birds in the Garden. London: Orion Books Ltd. p. 61. ISBN 1850792178.
^ Alcorn, Gordon Dee (1991). Birds and their young: courtship, nesting, hatching, fledging, the reproductive cycle. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books. p. 177. ISBN 0811710165.
^ Read, Marie (2005). Secret lives of common birds: enjoying bird behavior through the seasons. New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 45. ISBN 0-618-55871-3.
^ McGowan, Kevin J (1995). "A Test of Whether Economy or Nutrition Determines Fecal Sac Ingestion in Nesting Corvids" (PDF). The Condor. 97 (1): 50–56. doi:10.2307/1368982. JSTOR 1368982.
^ Stake, Mike M; Cavanagh, Paul M (2001). "Removal of Host Nestlings and Fecal Sacs by Brown-headed Cowbirds" (Abstract). The Wilson Bulletin. 113 (4): 456–459. doi:10.1676/0043-5643(2001)113[0456:ROHNAF]2.0.CO;2?journalCode=wils.1.
^ Potti, Jaime; Blanco, Guillermo; Lemus, Jesús Á.; Canal, David; Canal, David (2007). "Infectious Offspring: How Birds Acquire and Transmit an Avian Polyomavirus in the Wild". PLoS ONE. 2 (12): e1276. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0001276. PMC 2093992. PMID 18060070.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
^ Brickle, N. W.; Harper, D. G. C. (1 November 1999). "Diet of nestling Corn Buntings Miliaria calandra in southern England examined by compositional analysis of faeces" (Abtract). Bird Study. 46 (3): 319–329. doi:10.1080/00063659909461145.
^ Smith, G. T.; Calver, M. C. (1984). "The Diet of the Nestling Noisy Scrub-Bird, Atrichornis clamosus" (Abstract). Australian Wildlife Research. 11 (3): 553–558. doi:10.1071/WR9840553.
^ Custer, T. W.; Custer, C. M.; Stromborg, K. L. (July 1997). "Distribution of organochlorine contaminants in double-crested cormorant eggs and sibling embryos" (Abstract). Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. 16 (8): 1646–1649. doi:10.1002/etc.5620160812.
^ Bibby, Colin J. (2000). Bird Census Techniques (2 ed.). Amsterdam: Elsevier. p. 302. ISBN 0120958317.

[1] Choiniere, Joseph; Mowbray Golding, Claire; Vezo, Tom (2005). What's That Bird? : Getting to Know the Birds Around You, Coast-to-Coast. North Adams, MA: Storey Publishing. p. 33. ISBN 1580175546.

[2] Elphick, Chris; Dunning, Jr, John B. (2001). The Sibley Guide to Bird Life & Behaviour. London: Christopher Helm. p. 78. ISBN 0713662506. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |editors= ignored (|editor= suggested) (help)

[Dictionary-3] A Dictionary of Birds. Calton, Staffordshire: T & AD Poyser. 1985. p. 433. ISBN 0856610399. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |editors= ignored (|editor= suggested) (help)

[OConnor-4] O'Connor, Raymond J. (1984). The Growth and Development of Birds. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Interscience. p. 174. ISBN 0471903450.

[5] Ricklefs, Robert E. "Behavior of Young Cactus Wrens and Curve-billed Thrashers" (PDF). The Wilson Bulletin. 78 (1): 47–56.

[6] Ehrlich, Paul R; Dobkin, David S; Wheye, Darryl; Pimm, Stuart L. (1994). The Birdwatcher's Handbook. Oxford University Press. p. 75. ISBN 0198584075.

[7] Mockler, Mike (1992). Birds in the Garden. London: Orion Books Ltd. p. 61. ISBN 1850792178.

[8] Alcorn, Gordon Dee (1991). Birds and their young: courtship, nesting, hatching, fledging, the reproductive cycle. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books. p. 177. ISBN 0811710165.

[9] Read, Marie (2005). Secret lives of common birds: enjoying bird behavior through the seasons. New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 45. ISBN 0-618-55871-3.

[10] McGowan, Kevin J (1995). "A Test of Whether Economy or Nutrition Determines Fecal Sac Ingestion in Nesting Corvids" (PDF). The Condor. 97 (1): 50–56. doi:10.2307/1368982. JSTOR 1368982.

[11] Stake, Mike M; Cavanagh, Paul M (2001). "Removal of Host Nestlings and Fecal Sacs by Brown-headed Cowbirds" (Abstract). The Wilson Bulletin. 113 (4): 456–459. doi:10.1676/0043-5643(2001)113[0456:ROHNAF]2.0.CO;2?journalCode=wils.1.

[12] Potti, Jaime; Blanco, Guillermo; Lemus, Jesús Á.; Canal, David; Canal, David (2007). "Infectious Offspring: How Birds Acquire and Transmit an Avian Polyomavirus in the Wild". PLoS ONE. 2 (12): e1276. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0001276. PMC 2093992. PMID 18060070.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)

[13] Brickle, N. W.; Harper, D. G. C. (1 November 1999). "Diet of nestling Corn Buntings Miliaria calandra in southern England examined by compositional analysis of faeces" (Abtract). Bird Study. 46 (3): 319–329. doi:10.1080/00063659909461145.

[14] Smith, G. T.; Calver, M. C. (1984). "The Diet of the Nestling Noisy Scrub-Bird, Atrichornis clamosus" (Abstract). Australian Wildlife Research. 11 (3): 553–558. doi:10.1071/WR9840553.

[15] Custer, T. W.; Custer, C. M.; Stromborg, K. L. (July 1997). "Distribution of organochlorine contaminants in double-crested cormorant eggs and sibling embryos" (Abstract). Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. 16 (8): 1646–1649. doi:10.1002/etc.5620160812.

[16] Bibby, Colin J. (2000). Bird Census Techniques (2 ed.). Amsterdam: Elsevier. p. 302. ISBN 0120958317.

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 [[File:Sialia mexicana -Los Osos -California -removing fecal sac from nestbox-8.jpg|alt=A blue bird with a small white object in its beak flies against a green background.|right|thumb|Many species, such as the [[Western Bluebird]], carry fecal sacs some distance from the nest.]]
 [[File:House wren - food drops.ogv|right|thumb|A [[House Wren]] feeds chicks in a nest box, and towards the end of the video, removes a fecal sac]]
-A '''fecal sac''' (also spelled '''faecal sac''') is a mucous membrane, generally white or clear with a dark end,<ref>{{cite book |title=What's That Bird? : Getting to Know the Birds Around You, Coast-to-Coast |first1=Joseph |last1=Choiniere |first2=Claire |last2=Mowbray Golding |first3=Tom |last3=Vezo |year=2005 |publisher=Storey Publishing |location=North Adams, MA |isbn=1580175546 |page=33}}</ref> that surrounds the [[feces]] of some species of [[nestling]] [[bird]]s.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Sibley Guide to Bird Life & Behaviour |first1=Chris |last1=Elphick |first2=John B. |last2=Dunning, Jr |editors=Elphick, Chris; Dunning, Jr., John B. & David Sibley |year=2001 |publisher=Christopher Helm |location=London |page=78 |isbn=0713662506}}</ref> It allows parent birds to more easily remove fecal material from the [[bird nest|nest]]. The nestling usually produces a fecal sac within seconds of being fed; if not, a waiting adult may prod around the youngster's [[cloaca]] to stimulate [[excretion]].<ref name=Dictionary>{{cite book |title=A Dictionary of Birds |editors=Campbell, Bruce & Elizabeth Lack |year=1985 |publisher=The British Ornithologists' Union |isbn=0856610399 |publisher=T & AD Poyser |location=Calton, Staffordshire |page= 433}}</ref>  Young birds of some species adopt specific postures or engage in specific behaviors to signal that they are producing fecal sacs.<ref name=OConnor>{{cite book |title=The Growth and Development of Birds |page=174 |year=1984 |first=Raymond J. |last=O'Connor |publisher=[[Wiley Interscience]] |location=Hoboken, NJ |isbn=0471903450}}</ref> For example, nestling [[Curve-billed Thrasher]]s raise their posteriors in the air, while young [[Cactus Wren]]s shake their bodies.<ref>{{cite journal |journal=The Wilson Bulletin |title=Behavior of Young Cactus Wrens and Curve-billed Thrashers |first=Robert E |last=Ricklefs |volume=78 |issue=1 |pages=47–56 |url=http://elibrary.unm.edu/sora/Wilson/v078n01/p0047-p0056.pdf |format=PDF}}</ref> Other species deposit the sacs on the rim of the nest, where they are likely to be seen (and removed) by parent birds.<ref name=OConnor/>
+A '''fecal sac''' (also spelled '''faecal sac''') is a mucous membrane, generally white or clear with a dark end,<ref>{{cite book |title=What's That Bird? : Getting to Know the Birds Around You, Coast-to-Coast |first1=Joseph |last1=Choiniere |first2=Claire |last2=Mowbray Golding |first3=Tom |last3=Vezo |year=2005 |publisher=Storey Publishing |location=North Adams, MA |isbn=1580175546 |page=33}}</ref> that surrounds the [[feces]] of some species of [[nestling]] [[bird]]s.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Sibley Guide to Bird Life & Behaviour |first1=Chris |last1=Elphick |first2=John B. |last2=Dunning, Jr |editors=Elphick, Chris; Dunning, Jr., John B. & David Sibley |year=2001 |publisher=Christopher Helm |location=London |page=78 |isbn=0713662506}}</ref> It allows parent birds to more easily remove fecal material from the [[bird nest|nest]]. The nestling usually produces a fecal sac within seconds of being fed; if not, a waiting adult may prod around the youngster's [[cloaca]] to stimulate [[excretion]].<ref name=Dictionary>{{cite book |title=A Dictionary of Birds |editors=Campbell, Bruce & Elizabeth Lack |year=1985 |publisher=T & AD Poyser |isbn=0856610399 |location=Calton, Staffordshire |page= 433}}</ref>  Young birds of some species adopt specific postures or engage in specific behaviors to signal that they are producing fecal sacs.<ref name=OConnor>{{cite book |title=The Growth and Development of Birds |page=174 |year=1984 |first=Raymond J. |last=O'Connor |publisher=[[Wiley Interscience]] |location=Hoboken, NJ |isbn=0471903450}}</ref> For example, nestling [[Curve-billed Thrasher]]s raise their posteriors in the air, while young [[Cactus Wren]]s shake their bodies.<ref>{{cite journal |journal=The Wilson Bulletin |title=Behavior of Young Cactus Wrens and Curve-billed Thrashers |first=Robert E |last=Ricklefs |volume=78 |issue=1 |pages=47–56 |url=http://elibrary.unm.edu/sora/Wilson/v078n01/p0047-p0056.pdf |format=PDF}}</ref> Other species deposit the sacs on the rim of the nest, where they are likely to be seen (and removed) by parent birds.<ref name=OConnor/>
 Not all species generate fecal sacs. They are most prevalent in [[passerine]]s and their near relatives, which have young that remain in the nest for longer periods.<ref name=Dictionary/> In some species, the fecal sacs of small nestlings are eaten by their parents.  In other species, and when nestlings are older, sacs are typically taken some distance from the nest and discarded.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Birdwatcher's Handbook |first1=Paul R |last1=Ehrlich |first2=David S |last2=Dobkin |first3=Darryl |last3=Wheye |first4=Stuart L. |last4=Pimm |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1994 |isbn=0198584075 |page=75}}</ref> Young birds generally stop producing fecal sacs shortly before they [[fledge]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Mike |last=Mockler |title=Birds in the Garden |year=1992 |page=61 |publisher=Orion Books Ltd |location=London |isbn=1850792178}}</ref>
 Removal of fecal material helps to improve nest sanitation, which in turn helps to increase the likelihood that nestlings will remain healthy.<ref>{{cite book |title=Birds and their young: courtship, nesting, hatching, fledging, the reproductive cycle |first=Gordon Dee |last=Alcorn |year=1991 |publisher=Stackpole Books |location=Mechanicsburg, PA |isbn=0811710165 |page=177}}</ref>
-It also helps to reduce the chance that predators will see it or smell it and thereby find the nest.<ref>{{cite book |title=Secret lives of common birds: enjoying bird behavior through the seasons |first=Marie |last=Read |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt  |location=New York |isbn=0-618-55871-3 |year=2005 |page=45}}</ref> There is evidence that parent birds of some species gain a nutritional benefit from eating the fecal sacs; studies have shown that females — which tend to be more nutritionally stressed than their mates — are far more likely to consume sacs than are males.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://elibrary.unm.edu/sora/Condor/files/issues/v097n01/p0050-p0056.pdf |journal=The Condor |volume=97 |issue=1 |pages=50–56 |first=Kevin J |last=McGowan |title=A Test of Whether Economy or Nutrition Determines Fecal Sac Ingestion in Nesting Corvids |format=PDF}}</ref> Even [[brood parasite]]s such as [[Brown-headed Cowbird]]s, which do not care for their own offspring, have been documented swallowing the fecal sacs of nestlings of their [[host (biology)|host species]].<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1676/0043-5643%282001%29113%5B0456%3AROHNAF%5D2.0.CO%3B2?journalCode=wils.1 |journal=The Wilson Bulletin |volume=113 |issue=4 |pages=456–459 |year=2001|title=Removal of Host Nestlings and Fecal Sacs by Brown-headed Cowbirds |first1=Mike M |last1=Stake |first2=Paul M |last2=Cavanagh |format=Abstract}}</ref>
+It also helps to reduce the chance that predators will see it or smell it and thereby find the nest.<ref>{{cite book |title=Secret lives of common birds: enjoying bird behavior through the seasons |first=Marie |last=Read |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt  |location=New York |isbn=0-618-55871-3 |year=2005 |page=45}}</ref> There is evidence that parent birds of some species gain a nutritional benefit from eating the fecal sacs; studies have shown that females — which tend to be more nutritionally stressed than their mates — are far more likely to consume sacs than are males.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.2307/1368982 |url=http://elibrary.unm.edu/sora/Condor/files/issues/v097n01/p0050-p0056.pdf |journal=The Condor |volume=97 |issue=1 |pages=50–56 |first=Kevin J |last=McGowan |title=A Test of Whether Economy or Nutrition Determines Fecal Sac Ingestion in Nesting Corvids |format=PDF |year=1995 |jstor=1368982}}</ref> Even [[brood parasite]]s such as [[Brown-headed Cowbird]]s, which do not care for their own offspring, have been documented swallowing the fecal sacs of nestlings of their [[host (biology)|host species]].<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1676/0043-5643(2001)113[0456:ROHNAF]2.0.CO;2?journalCode=wils.1 |url=http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1676/0043-5643%282001%29113%5B0456%3AROHNAF%5D2.0.CO%3B2?journalCode=wils.1 |journal=The Wilson Bulletin |volume=113 |issue=4 |pages=456–459 |year=2001|title=Removal of Host Nestlings and Fecal Sacs by Brown-headed Cowbirds |first1=Mike M |last1=Stake |first2=Paul M |last2=Cavanagh |format=Abstract}}</ref>
-Studies have shown that [[polyomavirus|avian polyomavirus]] can be passed from offspring to parent birds through the removal of fecal sacs, particularly if the sacs are swallowed.  Because females of many species remove more fecal sacs than do their mates, and because they are more likely to swallow those sacs when the nestlings are small, they are particularly susceptible to this method of disease transmission.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2093992/ |title=Infectious Offspring: How Birds Acquire and Transmit an Avian Polyomavirus in the Wild |first1=Jaime |last1=Potti |first2=Guillermo |last2=Blanco |first3=Jesús Á. |last3=Lemus |first4=David |last4=Canal |journal=PLoS ONE |year=2007 |volume=2 |issue=12}}</ref>
+Studies have shown that [[polyomavirus|avian polyomavirus]] can be passed from offspring to parent birds through the removal of fecal sacs, particularly if the sacs are swallowed.  Because females of many species remove more fecal sacs than do their mates, and because they are more likely to swallow those sacs when the nestlings are small, they are particularly susceptible to this method of disease transmission.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0001276 |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2093992/ |title=Infectious Offspring: How Birds Acquire and Transmit an Avian Polyomavirus in the Wild |first1=Jaime |first5=David |last1=Potti |first2=Guillermo |last5=Canal |last2=Blanco |first3=Jesús Á. |last3=Lemus |first4=David |last4=Canal |journal=PLoS ONE |year=2007 |pages=e1276 |volume=2 |issue=12 |pmid=18060070 |pmc=2093992}}</ref>
-Scientists can use fecal sacs to learn a number of things about individual birds.  Examination of the contents of the sac can reveal details of the nestling's [[diet (nutrition)|diet]],<ref>{{cite journal |title=Diet of nestling Corn Buntings ''Miliaria calandra'' in southern England examined by compositional analysis of faeces |journal=Bird Study |volume=46 |issue=3 |date=1 November 1999 |pages=319–329 |last1=Brickle |first1=N. W. |last2=Harper |first2=D. G. C. |url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/bto/bird/1999/00000046/00000003/463319 |format=Abtract}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |journal=Australian Wildlife Research |title=The Diet of the Nestling Noisy Scrub-Bird, ''Atrichornis clamosus'' |first1=G. T. |last1=Smith |first2=M. C. |last2=Calver |year=1984 |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=553–558 |url=http://www.publish.csiro.au/paper/WR9840553 |format=Abstract}}</ref> and can indicate what [[contamination|contaminant]]s the young bird has been exposed to.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://md1.csa.com/partners/viewrecord.php?requester=gs&collection=ENV&recid=4241150&q=&uid=788658465&setcookie=yes |format=Abstract |last1=Custer |first1=T. W. |last2=Custer |first2=C. M. |last3=Stromborg |first3=K. L. |journal=Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry |title=Distribution of organochlorine contaminants in double-crested cormorant eggs and sibling embryos |volume=16 |issue=8 |pages=1646–1649 |date=July 1997}}</ref>  The presence of an adult bird carrying a fecal sac is used in [[bird census]]es as an indication of breeding.<ref>{{cite book |title=Bird Census Techniques |first=Colin J. |last=Bibby |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |location=Amsterdam |year=2000 |page=302 |edition=2 |isbn=0120958317}}</ref>
+Scientists can use fecal sacs to learn a number of things about individual birds.  Examination of the contents of the sac can reveal details of the nestling's [[diet (nutrition)|diet]],<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/00063659909461145 |title=Diet of nestling Corn Buntings ''Miliaria calandra'' in southern England examined by compositional analysis of faeces |journal=Bird Study |volume=46 |issue=3 |date=1 November 1999 |pages=319–329 |last1=Brickle |first1=N. W. |last2=Harper |first2=D. G. C. |url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/bto/bird/1999/00000046/00000003/463319 |format=Abtract}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1071/WR9840553 |journal=Australian Wildlife Research |title=The Diet of the Nestling Noisy Scrub-Bird, ''Atrichornis clamosus'' |first1=G. T. |last1=Smith |first2=M. C. |last2=Calver |year=1984 |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=553–558 |url=http://www.publish.csiro.au/paper/WR9840553 |format=Abstract}}</ref> and can indicate what [[contamination|contaminant]]s the young bird has been exposed to.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1002/etc.5620160812 |url=http://md1.csa.com/partners/viewrecord.php?requester=gs&collection=ENV&recid=4241150&q=&uid=788658465&setcookie=yes |format=Abstract |last1=Custer |first1=T. W. |last2=Custer |first2=C. M. |last3=Stromborg |first3=K. L. |journal=Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry |title=Distribution of organochlorine contaminants in double-crested cormorant eggs and sibling embryos |volume=16 |issue=8 |pages=1646–1649 |date=July 1997}}</ref>  The presence of an adult bird carrying a fecal sac is used in [[bird census]]es as an indication of breeding.<ref>{{cite book |title=Bird Census Techniques |first=Colin J. |last=Bibby |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |location=Amsterdam |year=2000 |page=302 |edition=2 |isbn=0120958317}}</ref>
 ==References==