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== <big>Décollement</big> ==
A '''décollement''' horizon in [[tectonic]]s is a surface that acts as a gliding plane between two masses in a [[thrust fault]] relationship. A décollement horizon can either form due to a low [[bulk modulus]] between bodies (usually in [[Lithology|lithologies]] such as [[marl]]s, [[shale]]s and [[evaporite]]s), or can form along planes of high pore pressures. <ref name=Ramsay>Ramsay, J, 1967, ''Folding and Fracturing of Rocks,'' McGraw-Hill ISBN 978-0070511705</ref>


<big>'''Décollement'''</big> (dé-collé-ment) is a gliding plane between two rock masses. In French, means to detach from or to rip off and was first used by geologists studying the structure of the Swiss [[Jura Mountains]]<ref name="Bertrand 1884">{{cite journal|last=Bertrand|first=Marcel|title=Rapports de structure des Alpes de|journal=Bull. Soc. g~oI.|year=1884|pages=318-330}}</ref> but is also known as a detachment zone. This is a structure of strata owing to [[Deformation (geology)|deformation]], resulting in independent styles of deformation in the rocks above and below. In a compressional setting it is associated with [[Fold (geology)|folding]] and [[Obduction|overthrusting]]<ref name="Bates 1984">{{cite book|last=Bates|first=Robert L.|tit
Most [[accretionary wedge]]s and fold-and-thrust belts form above a décollement [[Strike and dip|dipping]] toward the hinterland. Although the dip of these décollements may increase as loading by a growing wedge increases, research suggests décollement dips commonly vary from 1–5°; as in the western and northern [[Alps]], to as much as 10–20°; as in the [[Apennines]]. In the front of the wedge, the regional dip of the basal décollement in western [[Taiwan]] is reasonably well constrained by seismic reflection and deep-drilling data, as well as by cross-section restoration.
le=Dictionary of Geological Terms|year=1984|publisher=Anchor Books|location=New York|isbn=0-385-18101- 9|pages=129|edition=Third|coauthors=Julia A. Jackson|accessdate=10/19/11}}</ref>. In an extensional setting décollements can be formed in a number of different ways.


=== Origin ===
A décollement dip of 6° is believed to exist under the entire width of at least northern Taiwan. Because they control the deformation style and the wedge taper, the décollement dip and basal friction can be used to estimate the coefficient of internal friction within accretionary wedges. Davis et al. (1983) presented theoretical critical wedge profiles above dipping décollements and concluded that the taper was strongly controlled by the coefficient of internal friction of the wedge.
The term came into use in 1907 when A. Buxtorf released his paper that theorised that the Jura is the frontal part of a décollement [[nappe]] rooting in the faraway [[Swiss Alps]]<ref name="Laubscher, 1988"/><ref name="Buxtorf, 1907">{{cite journal|last=Buxtorf|first=A.|title=Zur Tektonik des Kettenjura.|journal=Ber. Versamml. oberrh, geo. Vet.|year=1907|pages=29-38}}</ref>.The décollement hypothesis of Buxtorf, although new for the Jura, was not novel at all for the Alps. [[Marcel Alexandre Bertrand]] published a paper in 1884 that delt with [[Geology_of_the_Alps|Alpine nappism]], décollement, [[Thin-skinned_deformation|thin-skinned tectonics]] was implied in that paper but the actual term was not used till Buxtorf's 1907 publication<ref name="Laubscher, 1988"/><ref name="Bertrand 1884"/>.


=== Décollement Formation ===
Antiformal stacks in the Sulaiman fold belt in [[Pakistan]] are interpreted to have formed in response to shortening of a [[Triassic]] to Recent sedimentary cover above a 2.5°-dipping basal detachment.
Décollement is facilitated by body forces<ref name="Hubbert, 1959">{{cite journal|last=Hubbert|first=M. K.|coauthors=Rubey, W. W.|title=Role of fluid pressure in mechanics of overthrust faulting, 1. Mechanics of fluid-filled porous solids and its application to overthurst faulting|journal=Geol. Soc. America Bull|year=1959|volume=70|pages=115-166}}</ref> and this has lead many researchers to equate décollement with gravity sliding. However, there is overwhelming evidence that much décollement is due to the surface forces that arise (push) at [[Convergent_plate_boundary|converging plate boundaries]]: Lubricating layers seem to be weak enough to permit development of stepped thrusts that originate at [[subduction zones]] and emerge far in the foreland. Sometimes an issue is made of whether this is overthrusting or underthrusting, but that is irrelevant mechanically because resistance to [[Shear_stress|shear]] depends on relative motion<ref name="Laubscher, 1987">{{cite journal|last=Laubscher|first=H. P.|title=Décollement|journal=Encyclopedia of Earth Science|year=1987|doi=10.1007/3-540-31080-0_27}}</ref>. A décollement horizon can either form due to high compressibility between bodies (usually in [[Lithology|lithologies]] such as [[marl]]s, [[shale]]s and [[evaporite]]s), or can form along planes of high pore pressures <ref name=Ramsay>Ramsay, J, 1967, ''Folding and Fracturing of Rocks,'' McGraw-Hill ISBN 978-0070511705</ref>. The depths of these structures range from a few to over 10 km<ref name="McBride, 2007">{{cite journal|last=H. McBride|first=John|coauthors=J.M. Pugin, D. Hatcher Jr.|title=Scale independence of décollement thrusting|journal=Geological Society of America Memoirs|year=2007|pages=109-126|doi=10.1130/2007.1200(07)}}</ref>. Two layers separated by the décollement layer can have different characteristics of tectonic deformation, they can act as a boundary between a brittle, (slip along the décollement), domain above and a zone with intense ductile deformation (flowing of solid rock) below the detachment surface<ref name="Chery, 2001">{{cite journal|last=Chery|first=Jean|title=Core complex mechanics: From the Gulf of Corinth to the Snake Range|journal=Geology|year=2001|volume=29|pages=439-442}}</ref>.


Typically, the basal detachment of the foreland part of a fold-thrust belt lies in a weak shale or evaporite at or near the [[basement rock]]-cover contact<ref name="Van Der Pluijm"/>. Rocks above the detachment are [[allochthonous]] in that they have been transported relative to their origianl location.<ref name="Van Der Pluijm"/>. If the distance traveled is greater than 2 km then the slab of rock is considered a [[nappe]]<ref name="Laubscher, 1988">{{cite journal|last=H.P. Laubscher|first=Basel|title=D&ollement in the Alpine system: an overview|journal=Geologische Rundschau|year=1988|volume=77|issue=1|pages=1-9}}</ref>. In contrast, rocks that lie below the detachment are [[autochthonous]], in that they have not been transported by fault slip and thus lie in their original position.<ref name="Van Der Pluijm"/> Geologists sometimes refer to the style of deformation in which faulting and folding occur only above a regional basal detachment as thin-skinned tectonics<ref name="Van Der Pluijm"/>, but décollements can take place in [[thick-skinned deformation]] as well <ref name="Bigi, 2002">{{cite journal|last=Bigi|first=Sabina|coauthors=Doglioni, Carlo|title=Thrust vs Normal Fault Decollements in The Central Appennines|journal=Boll. Soc. Geol.|year=2002|volume=1|pages=161-166}}</ref>.
The analytical studies have concluded that higher basal friction leads to formation of a wedge having a higher taper (surface slope), whereas low basal friction leads to formation of a wedge.


[[File:Compressional decollement.pdf|thumb|Fig. 1 Imbricate fan in a thrust system with a basal décollement<ref name="Van Der Pluijm"/><ref name="Malavieille, 2010"/>.]]
The [[Salt Range]] in Pakistan is the surface expression of the leading edge of décollement thrusts over northward offsets of the crystalline basement. Seismic and drill-hole data indicate total southward displacement of the Salt Range and [[Potwar Plateau]] of at least 20&nbsp;kilometers. The western part of the Salt Range is characterized by a major [[strike-slip fault]] (namely Kalabagh Strike-Slip Fault) that extends along the western Salt Range and [[Indus River]]. The eastern end of the Salt Range is truncated by another strike-slip fault (namely Jhelum Strike-Slip Fault) running through the [[Jhelum River]].

=== Compressional Setting ===
In a [[Fold and thrust belt|fold-thrust belt]] a décollement is the lowest detachment and this type of structure can form in the [[foreland basin]] of a [[Subduction zone]]<ref name="Van Der Pluijm"/>. The belt may contain higher level detachments, an imbricate fan (see Fig. 1) of thrust faults and [[Duplex_fault#Thrust_duplex|duplexes]], as well as several detachment horizons, but they all lie above the décollement.<ref name="Van Der Pluijm">{{cite book|last=Van Der Pluijm|first=Ben A.|title=Earth Structure|year=2004|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.|location=New York, NY|isbn=0-393-92467-X|pages=457}}</ref>. In the condition of tectonic compression,the layer above the décollement layer is apt to develop more intense deformation than other layers, and the deformation in the layer under the décollement layer is weaker<ref name="LiangJie, 2008">{{cite journal|last=LiangJie|first=Tang|coauthors=Yang KeMing, Jin WenZheng, LÜ ZhiZhou,Yu YiXin|title=Multi-level décollement zones and detachment deformation|journal=Science in China Series D: Earth Sciences|year=2008|volume=51|pages=32-43}}</ref>.

==== Effect of Friction ====
:Décollements are responsible for [[Duplex_fault#Thrust_duplex|duplex formation]], which evolution and geometry vary in styles and greatly influence the dynamics of the [[Accretionary_wedge|thrust wedge]]<ref>{{cite journal|last=Konstantinovskaya|first=E.|coauthors=J. Malavieille|title=Thrust wedges with décollement :levels and syntectonic erosion: A view from analog models|journal=Tectonophysics|date=20|year=2011|month=April|volume=502|issue=3-4|pages=336-350}}</ref>. The amount of friction that occurs along the décollement has an effect on the shape of the wedge. The resulting low-angle slope of the frontal part of the wedge reflects the low-friction upper décollement, whereas higher slope angles are a consequence of the higher basal friction décollement. <ref name="Malavieille, 2010">{{citejournal|last=Malavieille|first=Jacques|title=Impact of erosion, sedimentation, and structural heritage on the structure and kinematics of orogenic wedges: Analog models and case studies|year=2010|pages=4|doi=10.1130/GSATG48.1}}</ref>.

==== Types of Folding ====
:There are two different ideas on the type of folding that occurs with décollements in a fold-thrust belt. Concentric folding, (unform bed thickness), is necessarily accompanied by detachment or décollement as part of thrust-fault deformation.<ref name="Dahlstrom, 1969">{{cite journal|last=Dahlstrom|first=C.D.A.|title=The upper detachment in concentric folding: Bull|journal=Canadian Petrol. Geology|date=1969|volume=17|issue=3|pages=326-347}}</ref> Another author notes that most folding is disharmonic, that is, the from of such folds is not uniform throughout the stratigraphic column. <ref name="Billings, 1954">{{cite book|last=Billings|first=M.P.|title=Structural Geology|year=1954|publisher=Prentice-Hall|location=New York|pages=514|edition=2nd}}</ref>

[[File:Extensional Decollement.pdf|thumb|Fig. 2<ref name="Warren, 2006">{{cite book|last=Warren|first=John K.|title=Evaporites: Sediments, Resources and Hydrocarbons|year=2006|isbn=10.1007/3-540-32344-9_6|pages=375-415}}</ref><ref name="Chery, 2001"/>]]

=== Extensional Setting ===
Décollements that occur in an extensional setting are typically acccompanied by tectonic [[denudation]] and high cooling rates<ref name="Laubscher, 1988"/>. Four ways of décollements occuring in an extensional setting are a megalandslide, ''in situ'' ductile stretching or intrusion and rooted, low angle [[Fault (geology)|normal faults]], high angle normal faults.<ref name="Wernicke, 1981">{{cite journal|last=Wernicke|first=Brian|title=Low-angle normal faults in the Basin and Range Province: nappe tectonics in an extending orogen|journal=Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences|date=25|year=1981|month=June|volume=291|pages=645-646}}</ref><ref name="Chery, 2001"/>.
# The megalandslide model shows extension with normal faults near the original source and shortening further away from the source.<ref name="Wernicke, 1981"/>
# The ''in situ'' model shows numerous normal faults overlaying one large décollement.<ref name="Wernicke, 1981"/>
# The rooted, low angle normal fault model shows the décollement as a narrow zone of decoupling between two thin sheets of rock. Towards the thick end of the upper plate, extensional faulting may be negligible or absent, but towards the thin end it loses its ability to remain coherent and becomes a thin-skinned extensinal fault terrane.<ref name="Wernicke, 1981"/>.
# Décollements can form from high angle normal faults by being uplifted in a second stage of extension, which allows the exhumation of a [[Metamorphic_core_complex|metamorphic core complex]]. The stages are (as seen in Fig. 2), a half graben forms, stress orientation is not perturbed, because of high fault friction. Next, elevated pore pressure Pp leads to low effective friction that forces σ1 to be fault parallel in footwall. Low-angle fault forms and is ready to act as décollement. Then, the upper crust is thinned above décollement by normal faulting. New high-angle faults control décollement propagation and help crustal exhumation. Finally, major and rapid horizontal extension raises [[Isostasy|isostatically]] and isothermally. Décollement develops as antiform that migrates toward shallower depths<ref name="Chery, 2001"/>.

=== Real World Examples ===
===== The Jura Décollement =====
:This structure is located in the Jura Mountains that run just north of the Alps and originally theorized as a folded décollement nappe by A. Buxtorf in 1907<ref name="Laubscher, 1988"/><ref name="Buxtorf, 1907"/>. The thin-skinned nappe was sheared off on Triassic evaporites that were deposited up to 1 km thick<ref name="Sommaruga, 1998"/><ref name="Laubscher, 1988"/><ref name="Laubscher, 2008">{{cite journal|last=Laubscher|first=Hans|title=The Grenchenberg conundrum in the Swiss Jura: a case for the|journal=Swiss J. Geosci.|year=2008|volume=101|pages=41-60|doi=DOI 10.1007/s00015-008-1248-2}}</ref>.The frontal (northwest and west) basal thrust of the Jura décollement fold-and-thrust belt forms the most external limit of the Alpine orogenic wedge with the youngest fold-and-thrust activity <ref name="Mosar, 1999">{{cite journal|last=Mosar|first=Jon|title=Present-day and future tectonic underplating in the western Swiss|journal=Geological Survey of Norway|year=1999|volume=39}}</ref>. The Mesozoic and Cenozoic cover of the fold-and-thrust belt and the adjacent [[Molasse Basin]] have been deformed over the weak basal décollement and displaced by some 20km and more toward the northwest<ref name="Sommaruga, 1998">{{cite journal|last=Sommaruga|first=A.|title=Décollement tectonics in the Jura foreland fold-and-thrust belt|journal=Marine and Petroleum Geology|year=1998|volume=16|pages=111-134}}</ref>.

===== The Appalachian-Ouachita Décollement =====
The Appalachian-Ouachita orogen along the eastern and southern margin of North America includes a late Paleozoic external fold-thrust belt in which the thrust faults exhibit a characteristic thin-skinned flat-and ramp geometry.The geometry of the basal décollement is related to lateral and vertical variations in stratigraphic [[Facies|facies]]. The basal décollement of the fold thrust belt varies in stratigraphic level both along [[Strike_and_dip|strike]] and across strike. The geometry of the décollement also reflects the shapes of [[promontories]] and [[Embayment|embayments]] of the late Precambrian-early Paleozoic [[Rifting|rifted margin]]<ref name="Thomas, 1988">{{cite journal|last=Thomas|first=William A.|title=Stratigraphic Framework of The Geometry|journal=Geologische Rundschau|year=1988|volume=77|issue=1|pages=183-190}}</ref>.

⚫
== '''References''' ==
<references>/


⚫
==References==
{{Reflist}}
*Overview of the Geography, Geology, and Structure of the Potwar Regional Framework Assessment Project Study Area, Northern Pakistan By Peter D. Warwick, U.S. Geological Survey
*The effect of de´collement dip on geometry and kinematics of model accretionary wedges By Hemin A. Koyia, Bruno C. Vendevilleb


[[Category:Plate tectonics]]
[[Category:Plate tectonics]]

Revision as of 18:53, 11 November 2011

Décollement

Décollement (dé-collé-ment) is a gliding plane between two rock masses. In French, means to detach from or to rip off and was first used by geologists studying the structure of the Swiss Jura Mountains[1] but is also known as a detachment zone. This is a structure of strata owing to deformation, resulting in independent styles of deformation in the rocks above and below. In a compressional setting it is associated with folding and overthrusting[2]. In an extensional setting décollements can be formed in a number of different ways.

Origin

The term came into use in 1907 when A. Buxtorf released his paper that theorised that the Jura is the frontal part of a décollement nappe rooting in the faraway Swiss Alps[3][4].The décollement hypothesis of Buxtorf, although new for the Jura, was not novel at all for the Alps. Marcel Alexandre Bertrand published a paper in 1884 that delt with Alpine nappism, décollement, thin-skinned tectonics was implied in that paper but the actual term was not used till Buxtorf's 1907 publication[3][1].

Décollement Formation

Décollement is facilitated by body forces[5] and this has lead many researchers to equate décollement with gravity sliding. However, there is overwhelming evidence that much décollement is due to the surface forces that arise (push) at converging plate boundaries: Lubricating layers seem to be weak enough to permit development of stepped thrusts that originate at subduction zones and emerge far in the foreland. Sometimes an issue is made of whether this is overthrusting or underthrusting, but that is irrelevant mechanically because resistance to shear depends on relative motion[6]. A décollement horizon can either form due to high compressibility between bodies (usually in lithologies such as marls, shales and evaporites), or can form along planes of high pore pressures [7]. The depths of these structures range from a few to over 10 km[8]. Two layers separated by the décollement layer can have different characteristics of tectonic deformation, they can act as a boundary between a brittle, (slip along the décollement), domain above and a zone with intense ductile deformation (flowing of solid rock) below the detachment surface[9].

Typically, the basal detachment of the foreland part of a fold-thrust belt lies in a weak shale or evaporite at or near the basement rock-cover contact[10]. Rocks above the detachment are allochthonous in that they have been transported relative to their origianl location.[10]. If the distance traveled is greater than 2 km then the slab of rock is considered a nappe[3]. In contrast, rocks that lie below the detachment are autochthonous, in that they have not been transported by fault slip and thus lie in their original position.[10] Geologists sometimes refer to the style of deformation in which faulting and folding occur only above a regional basal detachment as thin-skinned tectonics[10], but décollements can take place in thick-skinned deformation as well [11].

Fig. 1 Imbricate fan in a thrust system with a basal décollement[10][12].

Compressional Setting

In a fold-thrust belt a décollement is the lowest detachment and this type of structure can form in the foreland basin of a Subduction zone[10]. The belt may contain higher level detachments, an imbricate fan (see Fig. 1) of thrust faults and duplexes, as well as several detachment horizons, but they all lie above the décollement.[10]. In the condition of tectonic compression,the layer above the décollement layer is apt to develop more intense deformation than other layers, and the deformation in the layer under the décollement layer is weaker[13].

Effect of Friction

Décollements are responsible for duplex formation, which evolution and geometry vary in styles and greatly influence the dynamics of the thrust wedge[14]. The amount of friction that occurs along the décollement has an effect on the shape of the wedge. The resulting low-angle slope of the frontal part of the wedge reflects the low-friction upper décollement, whereas higher slope angles are a consequence of the higher basal friction décollement. [12].

Types of Folding

There are two different ideas on the type of folding that occurs with décollements in a fold-thrust belt. Concentric folding, (unform bed thickness), is necessarily accompanied by detachment or décollement as part of thrust-fault deformation.[15] Another author notes that most folding is disharmonic, that is, the from of such folds is not uniform throughout the stratigraphic column. [16]
Fig. 2[17][9]

Extensional Setting

Décollements that occur in an extensional setting are typically acccompanied by tectonic denudation and high cooling rates[3]. Four ways of décollements occuring in an extensional setting are a megalandslide, in situ ductile stretching or intrusion and rooted, low angle normal faults, high angle normal faults.[18][9].

  1. The megalandslide model shows extension with normal faults near the original source and shortening further away from the source.[18]
  2. The in situ model shows numerous normal faults overlaying one large décollement.[18]
  3. The rooted, low angle normal fault model shows the décollement as a narrow zone of decoupling between two thin sheets of rock. Towards the thick end of the upper plate, extensional faulting may be negligible or absent, but towards the thin end it loses its ability to remain coherent and becomes a thin-skinned extensinal fault terrane.[18].
  4. Décollements can form from high angle normal faults by being uplifted in a second stage of extension, which allows the exhumation of a metamorphic core complex. The stages are (as seen in Fig. 2), a half graben forms, stress orientation is not perturbed, because of high fault friction. Next, elevated pore pressure Pp leads to low effective friction that forces σ1 to be fault parallel in footwall. Low-angle fault forms and is ready to act as décollement. Then, the upper crust is thinned above décollement by normal faulting. New high-angle faults control décollement propagation and help crustal exhumation. Finally, major and rapid horizontal extension raises isostatically and isothermally. Décollement develops as antiform that migrates toward shallower depths[9].

Real World Examples

The Jura Décollement
This structure is located in the Jura Mountains that run just north of the Alps and originally theorized as a folded décollement nappe by A. Buxtorf in 1907[3][4]. The thin-skinned nappe was sheared off on Triassic evaporites that were deposited up to 1 km thick[19][3][20].The frontal (northwest and west) basal thrust of the Jura décollement fold-and-thrust belt forms the most external limit of the Alpine orogenic wedge with the youngest fold-and-thrust activity [21]. The Mesozoic and Cenozoic cover of the fold-and-thrust belt and the adjacent Molasse Basin have been deformed over the weak basal décollement and displaced by some 20km and more toward the northwest[19].
The Appalachian-Ouachita Décollement

The Appalachian-Ouachita orogen along the eastern and southern margin of North America includes a late Paleozoic external fold-thrust belt in which the thrust faults exhibit a characteristic thin-skinned flat-and ramp geometry.The geometry of the basal décollement is related to lateral and vertical variations in stratigraphic facies. The basal décollement of the fold thrust belt varies in stratigraphic level both along strike and across strike. The geometry of the décollement also reflects the shapes of promontories and embayments of the late Precambrian-early Paleozoic rifted margin[22].

References

<references>/

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  1. ^ a b Bertrand, Marcel (1884). "Rapports de structure des Alpes de". Bull. Soc. g~oI.: 318–330.
  2. ^ Bates, Robert L. (1984). (Third ed.). New York: Anchor Books. p. 129. ISBN 0-385-18101- 9. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |tit le= ignored (help)
  3. ^ a b c d e f H.P. Laubscher, Basel (1988). "D&ollement in the Alpine system: an overview". Geologische Rundschau. 77 (1): 1–9.
  4. ^ a b Buxtorf, A. (1907). "Zur Tektonik des Kettenjura". Ber. Versamml. oberrh, geo. Vet.: 29–38.
  5. ^ Hubbert, M. K. (1959). "Role of fluid pressure in mechanics of overthrust faulting, 1. Mechanics of fluid-filled porous solids and its application to overthurst faulting". Geol. Soc. America Bull. 70: 115–166. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  6. ^ Laubscher, H. P. (1987). "Décollement". Encyclopedia of Earth Science. doi:10.1007/3-540-31080-0_27.
  7. ^ Ramsay, J, 1967, Folding and Fracturing of Rocks, McGraw-Hill ISBN 978-0070511705
  8. ^ H. McBride, John (2007). "Scale independence of décollement thrusting". Geological Society of America Memoirs: 109–126. doi:10.1130/2007.1200(07). {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  9. ^ a b c d Chery, Jean (2001). "Core complex mechanics: From the Gulf of Corinth to the Snake Range". Geology. 29: 439–442.
  10. ^ a b c d e f g Van Der Pluijm, Ben A. (2004). Earth Structure. New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. p. 457. ISBN 0-393-92467-X.
  11. ^ Bigi, Sabina (2002). "Thrust vs Normal Fault Decollements in The Central Appennines". Boll. Soc. Geol. 1: 161–166. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  12. ^ a b Malavieille, Jacques (2010). "Impact of erosion, sedimentation, and structural heritage on the structure and kinematics of orogenic wedges: Analog models and case studies": 4. doi:10.1130/GSATG48.1. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  13. ^ LiangJie, Tang (2008). "Multi-level décollement zones and detachment deformation". Science in China Series D: Earth Sciences. 51: 32–43. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  14. ^ Konstantinovskaya, E. (20). "Thrust wedges with décollement :levels and syntectonic erosion: A view from analog models". Tectonophysics. 502 (3–4): 336–350. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= and |year= / |date= mismatch (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  15. ^ Dahlstrom, C.D.A. (1969). "The upper detachment in concentric folding: Bull". Canadian Petrol. Geology. 17 (3): 326–347.
  16. ^ Billings, M.P. (1954). Structural Geology (2nd ed.). New York: Prentice-Hall. p. 514.
  17. ^ Warren, John K. (2006). Evaporites: Sediments, Resources and Hydrocarbons. pp. 375–415. ISBN 10.1007/3-540-32344-9_6. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)
  18. ^ a b c d Wernicke, Brian (25). "Low-angle normal faults in the Basin and Range Province: nappe tectonics in an extending orogen". Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences. 291: 645–646. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= and |year= / |date= mismatch (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  19. ^ a b Sommaruga, A. (1998). "Décollement tectonics in the Jura foreland fold-and-thrust belt". Marine and Petroleum Geology. 16: 111–134.
  20. ^ Laubscher, Hans (2008). "The Grenchenberg conundrum in the Swiss Jura: a case for the". Swiss J. Geosci. 101: 41–60. doi:DOI 10.1007/s00015-008-1248-2. {{cite journal}}: Check |doi= value (help)
  21. ^ Mosar, Jon (1999). "Present-day and future tectonic underplating in the western Swiss". Geological Survey of Norway. 39.
  22. ^ Thomas, William A. (1988). "Stratigraphic Framework of The Geometry". Geologische Rundschau. 77 (1): 183–190.
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