Red-backed salamander: Difference between revisions

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The red back salamander is a small (5.7 to 10.0 cm) terrestrial salamander which usually lives in forested areas under rocks, logs, bark, and other debris.<ref name="Conant and Colloins 1998">Conant R, Collins JT. 1998. A field guide to reptiles and amphibians of eastern and central North America. Boston; Houghton Mifflin.</ref> It is one of the most numerous salamanders throughout its range.<ref name = "Conant and Colloins 1998"/> The red back salamander exhibits color [[Polymorphism (biology)|polymorphism]] and two color variations are common: the nominate 'red back' variety has a red dorsal stripe that tapers towards the tail, and the darker variety, known as the 'lead back phase', lacks most or all of the red pigmentation.<ref name = "Conant and Colloins 1998"/> The red back phase is not always red, but may actually be various other colors (e.g., stripe colored yellow, orange, white, or a rare erythristic morph, in which the body is completely red).<ref name = "Conant and Colloins 1998"/> Both morphs have speckled black and white bellies.<ref name = "Conant and Colloins 1998"/>
The red back salamander is a small (5.7 to 10.0 cm) terrestrial salamander which usually lives in forested areas under rocks, logs, bark, and other debris.<ref name="Conant and Colloins 1998">Conant R, Collins JT. 1998. A field guide to reptiles and amphibians of eastern and central North America. Boston; Houghton Mifflin.</ref> It is one of the most numerous salamanders throughout its range.<ref name = "Conant and Colloins 1998"/> The red back salamander exhibits color [[Polymorphism (biology)|polymorphism]] and two color variations are common: the nominate 'red back' variety has a red dorsal stripe that tapers towards the tail, and the darker variety, known as the 'lead back phase', lacks most or all of the red pigmentation.<ref name = "Conant and Colloins 1998"/> The red back phase is not always red, but may actually be various other colors (e.g., stripe colored yellow, orange, white, or a rare erythristic morph, in which the body is completely red).<ref name = "Conant and Colloins 1998"/> Both morphs have speckled black and white bellies.<ref name = "Conant and Colloins 1998"/>
The skin of red back salamanders was found to contain ''[[Lysobacter gummosus]]'', an epibiotic bacterium which produces the chemical [[2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol]] and inhibits the growth of certain [[pathogenic fungi]].<ref name="Brucker et al. 2008">Brucker RM, Baylor CM, Walters RL, Lauer A, Harris RN, Minbiole KPC. 2008. The identification of 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol as an antifungal metabolite produced by cutaneous bacteria of the salamander Plethodon cinereus. Journal of Chemical Ecology 34(1):39-43.</ref>
The skin of red back salamanders was found to contain ''[[Lysobacter gummosus]]'', an epibiotic bacterium which produces the chemical [[2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol]] and inhibits the growth of certain [[pathogenic fungi]].<ref name="Brucker et al. 2008">{{cite journal|last=Brucker|first=Robert M.|coauthors=Baylor, Cambria M.; Walters, Robert L.; Lauer, Antje; Harris, Reid N.; Minbiole, Kevin P. C.|title=The Identification of 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol as an Antifungal Metabolite Produced by Cutaneous Bacteria of the Salamander Plethodon cinereus|journal=Journal of Chemical Ecology|year=2008|volume=34|issue=1|pages=39–43|doi=10.1007/s10886-007-9352-8|pmid=18058176}}</ref>




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==Behavior==
==Behavior==


Antipredator behavior was found to differ between the two color phases; the lead back phase has a tendency to run away from predators, whereas the red back phase often stays immobile and possibly exhibits [[aposematic]] coloration.<ref name="Venesky and Anthony 2007">Venesky MD, Anthony CD. 2007. Antipredator adaptations and predator avoidance by two color morphs of the eastern red-backed salamander, ''Plethodon cinereus''. Herpetologica 63(4):450-458.</ref> Stress levels of each color phase were estimated by determining the ratio of [[neutrophil]] to [[lymphocyte]] cells in the blood, and the results suggest stress levels are higher in the lead back phase than the red back variety.<ref name="David and Milanovich 2010">Davis AK, Milanovich JR. 2010. Lead-phase and red-stripe color morphs of red-backed salamanders Plethodon cinereus differ in hematological stress indices: A consequence of differential predation pressure? Current Zoology 56(2):238-243.</ref> This may be a consequence of a higher predation risk experienced in the wild by the lead back phase, and may also mean the lead back phase salamanders could be more vulnerable in captivity settings.<ref name = "David and Milanovich 2010"/>
Antipredator behavior was found to differ between the two color phases; the lead back phase has a tendency to run away from predators, whereas the red back phase often stays immobile and possibly exhibits [[aposematic]] coloration.<ref name="Venesky and Anthony 2007">{{cite journal|last=Venesky|first=Matthew D.|coauthors=Anthony, Carl D.|title=Antipredator adaptations and predator avoidance by two color morphs of the eastern red-backed salamander, ''Plethodon cinereus''| journal=Herpetologica|year=2007|volume=63|issue=4|pages=450–458|doi=10.1655/0018-0831(2007)63[450:AAAPAB]2.0.CO;2}}</ref> Stress levels of each color phase were estimated by determining the ratio of [[neutrophil]] to [[lymphocyte]] cells in the blood, and the results suggest stress levels are higher in the lead back phase than the red back variety.<ref name="David and Milanovich 2010">Davis AK, Milanovich JR. 2010. [http://akdavis.myweb.uga.edu/DavisPublications/pdfs/Davis%20and%20Milanovich%202010.pdf Lead-phase and red-stripe color morphs of red-backed salamanders ''Plethodon cinereus'' differ in hematological stress indices: A consequence of differential predation pressure?] Current Zoology 56(2):238-243.</ref> This may be a consequence of a higher predation risk experienced in the wild by the lead back phase, and may also mean the lead back phase salamanders could be more vulnerable in captivity settings.<ref name = "David and Milanovich 2010"/>


==Reproduction and biomass==
==Reproduction and biomass==
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==External links==
==External links==
{{Wikispecies-inline|Plethodon cinereus}}
{{Wikispecies-inline|Plethodon cinereus}}
* [http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/plethodon/p._cinereus ''Plethodon cinereus'']
* [http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Plethodon_cinereus/ ''Plethodon cinereus'' at Animal Diversity Web]
* [http://www.mister-toad.com/photos/salamander/plethodon_cinereus_01.html Parental Care in Plethodon cinereus]
* [http://www.mister-toad.com/photos/salamander/plethodon_cinereus_01.html Parental Care in Plethodon cinereus]
* [http://www.caudata.org/cc/species/Plethodon/P_cinereus.shtml ''Plethodon cinereus''], Caudata Culture
* [http://www.caudata.org/cc/species/Plethodon/P_cinereus.shtml ''Plethodon cinereus''], Caudata Culture

*[http://cfs.nrcan.gc.ca/subsite/glfc-amphibians/plethodon-cinereus Eastern Redback Salamander (''Plethodon cinereus'')], Natural Resources Canada

*[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?tmpl=NoSidebarfile&db=PubMed&cmd=Retrieve&list_uids=18058176 The identification of 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol as an antifungal metabolite produced by cutaneous bacteria of the salamander Plethodon cinereus]


[[Category:Plethodon]]
[[Category:Plethodon]]

Revision as of 19:40, 14 January 2014

Red- backed salamander
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Animalia
Phylum:
Chordata
Class:
Amphibia
Order:
Caudata
Family:
Plethodontidae
Genus:
Plethodon
Species:
P. cinereus
Binomial name
Plethodon cinereus
(Green, 1818)
Synonyms

Salamandra cinerea Green, 1818

The red back (or redback[1] or red-backed) salamander (Plethodon cinereus) is a small, hardy woodland salamander. It inhabits wooded slopes in eastern North America, west to Missouri, south to North Carolina, and north from southern Quebec and the Maritime Provinces in Canada to Minnesota. It is also known as the eastern red-backed salamander [1] or the northern red back salamander to distinguish it from the southern red back salamander (Plethodon serratus).

Description and ecology

Redback Salamander in its habitat

The red back salamander is a small (5.7 to 10.0 cm) terrestrial salamander which usually lives in forested areas under rocks, logs, bark, and other debris.[2] It is one of the most numerous salamanders throughout its range.[2] The red back salamander exhibits color polymorphism and two color variations are common: the nominate 'red back' variety has a red dorsal stripe that tapers towards the tail, and the darker variety, known as the 'lead back phase', lacks most or all of the red pigmentation.[2] The red back phase is not always red, but may actually be various other colors (e.g., stripe colored yellow, orange, white, or a rare erythristic morph, in which the body is completely red).[2] Both morphs have speckled black and white bellies.[2]

The skin of red back salamanders was found to contain Lysobacter gummosus, an epibiotic bacterium which produces the chemical 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol and inhibits the growth of certain pathogenic fungi.[3]


Lead back phase of a red back salamander

Behavior

Antipredator behavior was found to differ between the two color phases; the lead back phase has a tendency to run away from predators, whereas the red back phase often stays immobile and possibly exhibits aposematic coloration.[4] Stress levels of each color phase were estimated by determining the ratio of neutrophil to lymphocyte cells in the blood, and the results suggest stress levels are higher in the lead back phase than the red back variety.[5] This may be a consequence of a higher predation risk experienced in the wild by the lead back phase, and may also mean the lead back phase salamanders could be more vulnerable in captivity settings.[5]

Reproduction and biomass

Males and females typically establish separate feeding and/or mating territories underneath rocks and logs. However, some red back salamanders are thought to engage in social monogamy, and may maintain co-defended territories throughout their active periods. Breeding occurs in June and July. Females produce from four to 17 eggs in a year. The eggs will hatch in six to eight weeks. Not much is known about the dispersal of neonates, although neonates and juveniles are thought to be philopatric. The species largely consumes invertebrates and other detritus dwellers. In some areas with good habitat, these salamanders are so numerous, their population densities may surpass 1,000 individuals per acre.[6]


References

  1. ^ a b Integrated Taxonomic Information System [Internet] 2012. [updated 2012 Sept; cited 2012 Nov 26] Available from: www.itis.gov
  2. ^ a b c d e Conant R, Collins JT. 1998. A field guide to reptiles and amphibians of eastern and central North America. Boston; Houghton Mifflin.
  3. ^ Brucker, Robert M. (2008). "The Identification of 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol as an Antifungal Metabolite Produced by Cutaneous Bacteria of the Salamander Plethodon cinereus". Journal of Chemical Ecology. 34 (1): 39–43. doi:10.1007/s10886-007-9352-8. PMID 18058176. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  4. ^ Venesky, Matthew D. (2007). "Antipredator adaptations and predator avoidance by two color morphs of the eastern red-backed salamander, Plethodon cinereus". Herpetologica. 63 (4): 450–458. doi:10.1655/0018-0831(2007)63[450:AAAPAB]2.0.CO;2. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  5. ^ a b Davis AK, Milanovich JR. 2010. Lead-phase and red-stripe color morphs of red-backed salamanders Plethodon cinereus differ in hematological stress indices: A consequence of differential predation pressure? Current Zoology 56(2):238-243.
  6. ^ APPALACHIAN NATURE: An Entree’ of Salamanders

External links

Data related to Plethodon cinereus at Wikispecies

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