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{{Taxobox
{{Taxobox
| name = ''Bipalium adventitium''
| name = ''Bipalium adventitium''
| image =
| image = Bipalium adventitium1.jpg
| image_caption = ''Bipalium adventitium''
| image_caption = ''Bipalium adventitium''
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
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}}
}}


'''''Bipalium adventitium''''' is a predatory [[flatworm]] in the family [[Geoplanidae]] from Asia. It has been accidentally introduced elsewhere, including in North America, where it is considered [[Invasive species|invasive]]. Common names given to it and its [[Bipalium|close relatives]] are "broadhead planarian" and "hammerhead worm" because of the characteristic head shape.
'''''Bipalium adventitium''''' is a [[land planarian]] in the subfamily [[Bipaliinae]]. It has been accidentally introduced in the [[United States]], where it is considered [[Invasive species|invasive]].<ref name="Hyman">{{cite journal | last1 = Hyman | first1 = Libbie H. | title = Endemic and exotic land planarians in the United States with a discussion of necessary changes of names in the Rhynchodemidae | journal = American Museum Novitates | volume = 1241 | pages = 1–21 | year = 1943}}</ref>


==Appearance==
==Appearance==
Most adult ''B. adventitium'' are {{convert|5|-|8|cm|abbr=on}} in length.<ref name="Ducey, P. K., and S. Noce" /> They have a wider head than body, in the shape of a half moon. The body has a yellow to tan color and has one dark dorsal stripe.<ref name="Ducey, P. K., and S. Noce" />
Most adult individuals of ''B. adventitium'' are {{convert|5|-|8|cm|abbr=on}} in length. The head is expanded and fan-shaped, being easily distinguishable from other common species of ''Bipalium'', such as ''[[Bipalium kewense]]'' and ''[[Bipalium pennsylvanicum]]'', because these have a head in the shape of a half moon.<ref name="Hyman" /> The body has a yellow to tan color and has one dark dorsal stripe that does not extend over the head.<ref name="Ducey1998">{{cite journal | last1 = Ducey | first1 = P. K. | last2 = Noce | first2 = S. | year = 1998 | title = Successful invasion of New York State by the terrestrial flatworm, ''Bipalium adventitium'' | journal = Northeastern Naturalist | volume = 5 | issue = 3 | pages = 199–206}}</ref>


==Behaviour==
==Behaviour and Ecology==
===Predation===
===Predation===
This species is predatory, just like other ''Bipalium'', and preys on earthworms. In order for ''B. adventitium'' to catch its prey, it follows a chemical trail given off by the earthworm.<ref name="Fiore, C., J. L. Tull, S. Zehner, and P. K. Ducey">Fiore, C., J. L. Tull, S. Zehner, and P. K. Ducey. 2004. Tracking and predation on earthworms by the invasive terrestrial planarian Bipalium adventitium (Tricladida, Platyhelminthes). Behavioural Processes 67:327-334.</ref> Chemoreceptors on the head are responsible for sensing the trail of the earthworm.<ref name="Fernandes, M. C., E.P. Alvares, P. Gama, and M. Silveira">Fernandes, M. C., E.P. Alvares, P. Gama, and M. Silveira. 2001. The sensory border of the land planarian Bipalium kewense (Tricladida, Terricola). Belgium Journal of Zoology 131 (supplement 1):173-178.</ref>
''Bipalium adventitium'' is known to prey on [[earthworm]]s. In order to catch its prey, it follows a chemical trail given off by the earthworm.<ref name="Fiore2004">{{cite journal | last1 = Fiore | first1 = C. | first2 = J. L. | last2 = Tull | first3 = S. | last3 = Zehner | first4 = P. K. | last4 = Ducey | year= 2004 | title = Tracking and predation on earthworms by the invasive terrestrial planarian ''Bipalium adventitium'' (Tricladida, Platyhelminthes) | journal = Behavioural Processes | volume = 67 | pages = 327–334}}</ref> Chemoreceptors on the head are responsible for sensing the trail left by the prey.<ref name="Fernandes2001">{{cite journal | last1 = Fernandes | first1 = M. C. | first2 = E.P | last2 = Alvares | first3 = P. | last3 = Gama | first4 = M. | last4 = Silveira | year = 2001 | title = The sensory border of the land planarian ''Bipalium kewense'' (Tricladida, Terricola) | journal = Belgium Journal of Zoology | volume = 131 | issue = Supplement 1 | pages = 173–178}}</ref> After finding an earthworm, the planarian quickly crawls over it and wrap itself around the prey, preventing its escape. In [[North America]], where ''B. adventitium'' is an introduced species, most earthworms do not immediately recognize the flatworm as a predator. They try to escape only after being pierced by the planarian's everted pharynx, which is one of the reasons of ''B. adventitium'''s success in invading this continent.<ref name="Fiore2004" />


Recently, it has been confirmed that the potent [[neurotoxin]] [[tetrodotoxin]] is present in ''B. adventitium''. Its function is yet unknown, but it may be used as a defense against predators or as a way to subdue prey.<ref name="Dickens2014">{{cite journal | last1 = Dickens | first1 = Joseph Clifton | last2 = Stokes | first2 = Amber N. | last3 = Ducey | first3 = Peter K. | last4 = Neuman-Lee | first4 = Lorin | last5 = Hanifin | first5 = Charles T. | last6 = French | first6 = Susannah S. | last7 = Pfrender | first7 = Michael E. | last8 = Brodie | first8 = Edmund D. | last9 = Brodie Jr | first9 = Edmund D. | title = Confirmation and Distribution of Tetrodotoxin for the First Time in Terrestrial Invertebrates: Two Terrestrial Flatworm Species (''Bipalium adventitium'' and ''Bipalium kewense'') | journal = PLoS ONE | volume = 9 | issue = 6 | year = 2014 | pages = e100718 | issn = 1932-6203 | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0100718}}{{Open access}}</ref>

[[Image:Bipalium adventitium mating.jpg|thumb|Two individuals of ''Bipalium adventitium'' wrapped around each other, probably mating.]]
===Reproduction===
===Reproduction===
''Bipalium adventitium'' can reproduce by different methods. It is suggested that these terrestrial planarians have only one breeding season per year.<ref name="Ducey, P. K., and S. Noce" /> Reproduction commonly occurs in ''B. adventitium'' by sexual reproduction. An egg capsule carries the offspring for around 3 weeks before hatching to give 1-6 juveniles.<ref>Ducey, P. K., L-J. West, G. Shaw, J. DeLisle. 2005. Reproductive ecology and evolution in the invasive terrestrial planarian Bipalium adventitium across North America. Pedobiologia 49:367-377.</ref>
Differently from ''Bipalium kewense'', which usually reproduces asexually by fission, ''Bipalium adventitium'' more commonly reproduces sexually. It is suggested that it has only one breeding season per year.<ref name="Ducey1998" /> As in most land planarians, mating occurs by [[internal fertilization]] when two individuals meet. The eggs are deposited in egg capsules and after about 3 weeks they release 1–6 juveniles.<ref name="Ducey2005">{{cite journal | last1 = Ducey | first1 = P. K. | first2 = L-J. | last2 = West | first3 = G. | last3 = Shaw | first4 = J | last4 = DeLisle | year = 2005 | title = Reproductive ecology and evolution in the invasive terrestrial planarian ''Bipalium adventitium'' across North America | journal = Pedobiologia | volume = 49 | pages = 367–377}}</ref>


==Invasion of North America==
===Invasion of North America===
''Bipalium adventitium'' is believed to have been introduced in the last century to the United States from Asia. It is believed that this broadhead planarian was introduced and spread to most Northern states passively by human dispersal and has become abundant in the region it occupies.<ref>Ogren, R.E. 1984. Exotic land planarians of the genus Bipalium (Platyhelminthes: Turbellaria) from Pennsylvania and the academy of natural sciences, Philadelphia. Proc. of the Penn. Acad. of Sci. 58: 193-201.</ref> It is more commonly found in suburban areas and nurseries where exotic plants are prevalent.<ref name="Ducey, P. K., and S. Noce">Ducey, P. K., and S. Noce. 1998. Successful invasion of New York State by the terrestrial flatworm, Bipalium adventitium. Northeastern Naturalist 5(3):199-206.</ref> The ecological consequences of this invasion have not yet been fully explored.
''Bipalium adventitium'' is believed to have been introduced in the last century to the United States from Asia. It is believed that this broadhead planarian was introduced and spread to most Northern states passively by human dispersal and has become abundant in the region it occupies.<ref name = "Ogren1984">{{cite journal | last = Ogren | first = R.E. | year = 1984 | title = Exotic land planarians of the genus ''Bipalium'' (Platyhelminthes: Turbellaria) from Pennsylvania and the academy of natural sciences, Philadelphia | journal = Proc. of the Penn. Acad. of Sci. | volume = 58 | pages = 193–201}}</ref> It is more commonly found in suburban areas and nurseries where exotic plants are prevalent.<ref name="Ducey1998" /> The ecological consequences of this invasion have not yet been fully explored.


==References==
==References==

Revision as of 22:38, 15 February 2017

Bipalium adventitium
Bipalium adventitium
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Animalia
Phylum:
Platyhelminthes
Class:
Rhabditophora
Order:
Tricladida
Suborder:
Continenticola
Family:
Geoplanidae
Subfamily:
Bipaliinae
Genus:
Bipalium
Species:
B. adventitium
Binomial name
Bipalium adventitium
Hyman, 1943

Bipalium adventitium is a land planarian in the subfamily Bipaliinae. It has been accidentally introduced in the United States, where it is considered invasive.[1]

Appearance

Most adult individuals of B. adventitium are 5–8 cm (2.0–3.1 in) in length. The head is expanded and fan-shaped, being easily distinguishable from other common species of Bipalium, such as Bipalium kewense and Bipalium pennsylvanicum, because these have a head in the shape of a half moon.[1] The body has a yellow to tan color and has one dark dorsal stripe that does not extend over the head.[2]

Behaviour and Ecology

Predation

Bipalium adventitium is known to prey on earthworms. In order to catch its prey, it follows a chemical trail given off by the earthworm.[3] Chemoreceptors on the head are responsible for sensing the trail left by the prey.[4] After finding an earthworm, the planarian quickly crawls over it and wrap itself around the prey, preventing its escape. In North America, where B. adventitium is an introduced species, most earthworms do not immediately recognize the flatworm as a predator. They try to escape only after being pierced by the planarian's everted pharynx, which is one of the reasons of B. adventitium's success in invading this continent.[3]

Recently, it has been confirmed that the potent neurotoxin tetrodotoxin is present in B. adventitium. Its function is yet unknown, but it may be used as a defense against predators or as a way to subdue prey.[5]

Two individuals of Bipalium adventitium wrapped around each other, probably mating.

Reproduction

Differently from Bipalium kewense, which usually reproduces asexually by fission, Bipalium adventitium more commonly reproduces sexually. It is suggested that it has only one breeding season per year.[2] As in most land planarians, mating occurs by internal fertilization when two individuals meet. The eggs are deposited in egg capsules and after about 3 weeks they release 1–6 juveniles.[6]

Invasion of North America

Bipalium adventitium is believed to have been introduced in the last century to the United States from Asia. It is believed that this broadhead planarian was introduced and spread to most Northern states passively by human dispersal and has become abundant in the region it occupies.[7] It is more commonly found in suburban areas and nurseries where exotic plants are prevalent.[2] The ecological consequences of this invasion have not yet been fully explored.

References

  1. ^ a b Hyman, Libbie H. (1943). "Endemic and exotic land planarians in the United States with a discussion of necessary changes of names in the Rhynchodemidae". American Museum Novitates. 1241: 1–21.
  2. ^ a b c Ducey, P. K.; Noce, S. (1998). "Successful invasion of New York State by the terrestrial flatworm, Bipalium adventitium". Northeastern Naturalist. 5 (3): 199–206.
  3. ^ a b Fiore, C.; Tull, J. L.; Zehner, S.; Ducey, P. K. (2004). "Tracking and predation on earthworms by the invasive terrestrial planarian Bipalium adventitium (Tricladida, Platyhelminthes)". Behavioural Processes. 67: 327–334.
  4. ^ Fernandes, M. C.; Alvares, E.P; Gama, P.; Silveira, M. (2001). "The sensory border of the land planarian Bipalium kewense (Tricladida, Terricola)". Belgium Journal of Zoology. 131 (Supplement 1): 173–178.
  5. ^ Dickens, Joseph Clifton; Stokes, Amber N.; Ducey, Peter K.; Neuman-Lee, Lorin; Hanifin, Charles T.; French, Susannah S.; Pfrender, Michael E.; Brodie, Edmund D.; Brodie Jr, Edmund D. (2014). "Confirmation and Distribution of Tetrodotoxin for the First Time in Terrestrial Invertebrates: Two Terrestrial Flatworm Species (Bipalium adventitium and Bipalium kewense)". PLoS ONE. 9 (6): e100718. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0100718. ISSN 1932-6203.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)Open access icon
  6. ^ Ducey, P. K.; West, L-J.; Shaw, G.; DeLisle, J (2005). "Reproductive ecology and evolution in the invasive terrestrial planarian Bipalium adventitium across North America". Pedobiologia. 49: 367–377.
  7. ^ Ogren, R.E. (1984). "Exotic land planarians of the genus Bipalium (Platyhelminthes: Turbellaria) from Pennsylvania and the academy of natural sciences, Philadelphia". Proc. of the Penn. Acad. of Sci. 58: 193–201.
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