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Kangaroo care, or skin-to-skin care, is a technique practiced on newborn, usually preterm, infants wherein the infant is held, skin-to-skin, with an adult. Kangaroo care for pre-term infants may be restricted to a few hours per day, but if they are medically stable that time may be extended. Some parents may keep their babies in-arms for many hours per day.

Kangaroo care, named for the similarity to how certain marsupials carry their young, was initially developed to care for preterm infants in areas where incubators are either unavailable or unreliable.

Description

Kangaroo care seeks to provide restored closeness of the newborn with family members by placing the infant in direct skin-to-skin contact with one of them. This ensures physiological and psychological warmth and bonding. The parent's stable body temperature helps to regulate the neonate's temperature more smoothly than an incubator, and allows for readily accessible breastfeeding when the mother holds the baby this way.^[1]

While this model of infant care is substantially different from the typical Western neonatal intensive-care unit (NICU) procedures described here, the two are not mutually exclusive, and it is estimated that more than 200 neonatal intensive care units practice kangaroo care today. One recent survey found that 82 percent of neonatal intensive care units use kangaroo care in the United States today.

Terminology

Kangaroo Care is likely the most widely used term for skin-to-skin contact, Gene Cranston Anderson may have been the first to coin the term Kangaroo Care in the USA.^[2] The defining feature of this is however for skin-to-skin contact, commonly abbreviated as SSC, also STS. This is used synonymously with "skin-to-skin care".^[3]^[4] Dr Nils Bergman, one of the founders of the Kangaroo Mother Care Movement, argues that since skin-to-skin contact is a place of care, not a kind of care in itself, skin-to-skin contact should be the preferred term.^[5]

Kangaroo Mother Care is a broader package of care defined by the WHO. Kangaroo Mother Care originally referred only to care of low birth weight and preterm infants, and is defined as a care strategy including three main components: kangaroo position, kangaroo nutrition and kangaroo discharge. Kangaroo position means direct skin-to-skin contact between mother and baby, but can include father, other family member or surrogate. The infant should be upright on the chest, and the airway secured with safe technique. (The term Kangaroo Mother Care is commonly used to mean skin-to-skin contact, despite its definition from the WHO as including a broader strategy).^[6]

Kangaroo nutrition implies exclusive breastfeeding, with additional support as required but with the aim of achieving ultimately exclusive breastfeeding.

Kangaroo discharge requires that the infant is sent home early, meaning as soon as the mother is breastfeeding and able to provide all basic care herself. In Bogota, Colombia, this could take place at weights around 1000g, with oxygen cylinders for home use; the reason was that overcrowding in their hospital meant that three babies in an incubator would result in potentially lethal cross-infections. An essential part of this is that there is close follow-up, and access to daily visits.^[7]

History

Peter de Chateau in Sweden first described studies of "early contact" with mother and baby at birth in 1976, articles do not describe specifically that this was skin-to-skin contact.^[8] Klaus and Kennell did very similar work in the USA, more well known in the context of early maternal-infant bonding. The first report use of the term "skin-to-skin contact" is by Thomson in 1979^[9] and quotes the work of de Chateau in its rationale. This is contemporary or even precedes the origins of Kangaroo Mother Care^[10] in Bogota, Colombia.^[4] This latter did however make the concept more widely known.

In 1978, due to increasing morbidity and mortality rates in the Instituto Materno Infantil NICU in Bogotá, Colombia, Dr. Edgar Rey Sanabria, Professor of Neonatology at Department of Paediatry - Universidad Nacional de Colombia, introduced a method to alleviate the shortage of caregivers and lack of resources. He suggested that mothers have continuous skin-to-skin contact with their low birth weight babies to keep them warm and to give exclusive breastfeeding as needed. This freed up overcrowded incubator space and care givers.

Another feature of kangaroo care was early discharge in the kangaroo position despite prematurity. It has proven successful in improving survival rates of premature and low birth weight newborns and in lowering the risks of nosocomial infection, severe illness, and lower respiratory tract disease (Conde-Agudelo, Diaz-Rossello, & Belizan, 2003). It also increased exclusive breast feeding and for a longer duration and improved maternal satisfaction and confidence.^[11]

Dr Rey and Dr Martinez published their results in 1979 in Spanish,^[4] and used the term Kangaroo Mother Method. This was brought to the attention of English speaking health professionals in an article by Whitelaw and Sleath in 1985.^[7] Gene Cranston Anderson and Susan Ludington were instrumental in introducing this to North America.

"Kangaroo Mother Care" as a term was first defined at a meeting of some 30 interested researchers, attending a meeting convened by Dr Adriano Cattaneo and colleagues in November 1996 in Trieste, Italy, together with the WHO represented by Dr Jelka Zupan.^[12]^[13]

An International Network of Kangaroo Mother Care (INK) was convened at the Trieste meeting, and has overseen workshops and conferences every two years. After Trieste, meetings were held in Bogota Colombia 1998, Yogyakarta Indonesia 2000, Cape Town South Africa 2002, Rio de Janeiro Brazil 2004, Cleveland USA 2006, Uppsala Sweden 2008, Quebec Canada 2010, Ahmedabad India 2012, and Kigali Rwanda 2014; the meeting in 2016 planned for Trieste Italy.

An informal steering committee coordinates these meetings: (alphabetically, current) Nils Bergman, Adriano Cattaneo, Nathalie Charpak, Kerstin Hedberg-Nyqvist, Ochi Ibe, Susan Ludington, Socorro Mendoza, Mantoa Mokrachane, Juan Gabriel Ruiz, Réjean Tessier, Rekha Udani.

Susan Ludington maintains a "KC BIB" (bibliography) on behalf of INK, endeavouring to be a complete inventory of any and all publications relevant to Kangaroo Mother Care. This is also broken down in an analysis of 120 charts, in which specific outcomes are collated.^[14]

The International Kangaroo Care Awareness Day has been celebrated worldwide on May 15 since 2011. It is a day to increase awareness to enhance practice of Kangaroo Care in NICUS, Post Partum, Labor and Delivery, and any hospital unit that has babies up to 3 months of age.

Scientific rationale

Mainstream clinical medicine has not accepted Kangaroo Mother Care, nor skin-to-skin contact,^[15] as more than an adjunct to reliance on advanced technology that requires maternal infant separation. However, in primates, early skin-to-skin contact is part of a universal reproductive behaviour,^[16] and early separation is used as a research modality to test the harmful effects on early development. Research suggests that for all mammals, the maternal environment (or place of care) is the primary requirement for regulation of all physiological needs (homeostasis),^[17] maternal absence leads to dysregulation and adaptation to adversity.^[18]^[19]

Even for humans, it would appear that skin-to-skin contact has a better scientific rationale than the incubator. All other supportive technology can be provided as part of care to extremely low birth weight babies during skin-to-skin contact,^[20] and appears to produce a better effect.^[21]

Based on the scientific rationale, it has been suggested that skin-to-skin contact should be initiated immediately, to avoid the harmful effects of separation (Bergman Curationis). In terms of classification and proper defining for research purposes, the following aspects that categorise and define skin-to-skin contact have been proposed:

Initiation time, (minutes, hours from birth), ideal is zero separation.
Dose of skin-to-skin contact, (hours per day, or as percentage of day), ideal >90%.
Duration, (measured in days or weeks from birth), ideally until infant refuses.

Safe technique should ensure that obstructive apnoea cannot occur. Since the mother must be able to sleep to provide adequate dose, this requires keeping the airway safely open, and close containment to mother’s bare chest using a garment, various of these are described in the WHO guidelines.^[6]

Mother should be the primary provider of skin-to-skin contact, as only she can breastfeed. However, it is almost always necessary that father should also provide skin-to-skin contact to achieve adequate dose; other family members can also be used. Since skin-to-skin contact is basic to early bonding and attachment, it should probably not be done by hospital staff and other surrogates.

Clinical evidence

In 2016 a Cochrane review, "Kangaroo mother care to reduce morbidity and mortality in low birthweight infants", was published bringing together data from 21 studies including 3042 low birth-weight babies (less than 1,500 grams (53 oz) at birth).^[22] This review shows that babies provided kangaroo mother care have a reduced risk of death, hospital-acquired infection, and low body temperature (hypothermia); it is also associated with increased weight gain, growth in length, and rates of breastfeeding.^[22]

A further Cochrane review on "Early skin-to-skin contact for mothers and their healthy babies", updated in 2015, provides clinical support for the scientific rationale but looks at evidence for early skin-to-skin contact for healthy babies.^[23] The available evidence shows that early skin-to-skin contact is associated with increased rates of breastfeeding, and some evidence of improved physiological outcomes (early stability of the heart rate and breathing) for the babies.^[23]

A randomized controlled trial published in 2004 reports that babies born between 1200 and 2200g became physiologically stable in skin-to-skin contact starting from birth, compared to similar babies in incubators.^[24] In another randomized controlled trial conducted in Ethiopia, survival improved when skin-to-skin contact was started before 6 hours of age.^[25]

While Kangaroo Mother Care generally implies care of low birth weight and preterm infants, skin-to-skin contact should be regarded as normal and basic for all newly born humans.^[23] The original research by Thomson showed increased breastfeeding rates when skin-to-skin contact started at birth, and when early breastfeeding was encouraged every two hours.^[9] Currently, the impact of skin-to-skin contact on breastfeeding is the scientific rationale for Step 4 of the Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative (BFHI), which requires help to "initiate breastfeeding within one hour of birth".

Eligibility criteria

Originally babies who are eligible for kangaroo care include pre-term infants weighing less than 1,500 grams (3.3 lb), and breathing independently. Cardiopulmonary monitoring, oximetry, supplemental oxygen or nasal (continuous positive airway pressure) ventilation, intravenous infusions, and monitor leads do not prevent kangaroo care. In fact, babies who are in kangaroo care tend to be less prone to apnea and bradycardia and have stabilization of oxygen needs.^[26]^[27]

During the early 1990s, the concept was advocated in North America for premature babies in NICU and later for full term babies. Research has been done in developed countries but there is a lag in implementation of kangaroo care due to ready access of incubators and technology.

Restrictions for eligibility to receive skin-to-skin contact are becoming fewer, the main constraint has probably been caregiver confidence and experience.

Techniques

In kangaroo care, the baby wears only a small diaper and a hat and is placed in a flexed (fetal position) with maximal skin-to-skin contact on parent's chest. The baby is secured with a wrap that goes around the naked torso of the adult, providing the baby with proper support and positioning (maintain flexion), constant containment without pressure points or creases, and protecting from air drafts (thermoregulation). If it is cold, the parent may wear a shirt or hospital gown with an opening to the front and a blanket over the wrap for the baby.^[28]

The tight bundling is enough to stimulate the baby: vestibular stimulation from the parent's breathing and chest movement, auditory stimulation from the parent's voice and natural sounds of breathing and the heartbeat, touch by the skin of the parent, the wrap, and the natural tendency to hold the baby. All this stimulation is important for the baby’s development.

"Birth Kangaroo Care" places the baby in kangaroo care with the mother within one minute after birth and up to the first feeding. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends this practice, with minimal disruption for babies that don't require life support. The baby's head must be dried immediately after birth and then the baby is placed with a hat on the mother's chest. Measurements, etc. are performed after the first feeding. According to the US Institute of Kangaroo Care, healthy babies should maintain skin-to-skin contact method for about 3 months so that both baby and mother are established in breastfeeding and have achieved physiological recovery from the birth process.

For premature babies, this method can be used continuously around the clock or for sessions of no less than one hour in duration (the length of one full sleep cycle.) It can be started as soon as the baby is stabilized, so it may be at birth or within hours, days, or weeks after birth.

Kangaroo care is different from the practice of babywearing. In kangaroo care, the adult and the baby are skin-to-skin and chest-to-chest, securing the position of the baby with a stretchy wrap, and it is practiced to provide developmental care to premature babies for 6 months and full-term newborns for 3 months. In babywearing the adult and the child are fully clothed, the child may be in the front or back of the adult, can be done with many different types of carriers and slings, and is commonly practiced with infants and toddlers.

Benefits

For parents

Kangaroo care is beneficial for parents because it promotes attachment and bonding, improves parental confidence, and helps to promote increased milk production and breastfeeding success.^[1]^[22]^[29]^[30]

For fathers

Both preterm and full term infants benefit from skin to skin contact for the first few weeks of life with the baby's father as well. The new baby is familiar with the father's voice and it is believed that contact with the father helps the infant to stabilize and promotes father to infant bonding. If the infant's mother had a caesarean birth, the father can hold their baby in skin-to-skin contact while the mother recovers from the anesthetic.^[31]

For pre-term and low-birth-weight infants

Kangaroo care arguably offers the most benefits for pre-term and low-birth-weight infants, who experience more normalized temperature, heart rate, and respiratory rate,^[23]^[32] increased weight gain,^[22]^[11] and fewer hospital-acquired infections.^[22] Additionally, studies suggest that preterm infants who experience kangaroo care have improved cognitive development, decreased stress levels, reduced pain responses, normalized growth, and positive effects on motor development.^[1]^[11]^[33]^[34]^[35]^[36] Kangaroo care also helps to improve sleep patterns of infants, and may be a good intervention for colic.^[37] Earlier discharge from hospital is also a possible outcome ^[26] Finally, kangaroo care helps to promote frequent breastfeeding, and can enhance mother-infant bonding.^[38] Evidence from a recent systematic review supports the use of kangaroo mother care as a substitute for conventional neonatal care in settings where resources are limited."^[22]

Promotes more successful breastfeeding of full-term infants

According to some authorities there is a growing body of evidence that suggests that early skin-to-skin contact of mother and baby stimulates breast feeding behavior in the baby. Newborn infants who are immediately placed on their mother’s skin have a natural instinct to latch on to the breast and start nursing, typically within one hour of being born. It is thought that immediate skin-to-skin contact provides a form of imprinting that makes subsequent feeding significantly easier. The World Health Organization reports that in addition to more successful breastfeeding, skin-to-skin contact between a mother and her newborn baby immediately after delivery also reduces crying, improves mother to infant interaction, and keeps baby warm. According to studies quoted by UNICEF, babies have been observed to naturally follow a unique process which leads to a first breastfeed. After birth, babies who are placed skin to skin on their mothers chest will:

Initially babies cry briefly – a very distinctive birth cry
Then they will enter a stage of relaxation, recovering from the birth
Then the baby will start to wake up
Then begin to move, initially little movements, perhaps of the arms, shoulders and head
As these movements increase the baby will actually start to crawl towards the breast
Once the baby has found the breast and therefore the food source, there is a period of rest. Often this can be mistaken as the baby is not hungry or wanting to feed
After resting, the baby will explore and get familiar with the breast, perhaps by nuzzling, smelling and licking before attaching

Providing that there are no interruptions, all babies are said to follow this process and it is suggested that trying to rush the process or interruptions such as removing the baby to weigh or measure is counter-productive and may lead to problems at subsequent breastfeeds.^[39]

For institutions

Kangaroo care often results in reduced hospital stays, reduced need for expensive healthcare technology, increased parental involvement and teaching opportunities, and better use of healthcare dollars.

For the community

Overall, kangaroo care helps to reduce morbidity and mortality, provides opportunities for teaching during postnatal follow-up visits, and decreases hospital-associated costs.

Controversy

The Cochrane review provides the current evidence base for Kangaroo Mother Care, including only articles that practice all components.^[22] In the latest update, there is sufficient evidence to conclude that Kangaroo Mother Care reduces mortality, and also morbidity in resource limited settings. However, the strength of this evidence is based largely on only one study which starts the kangaroo position component on unstable babies on the first day of life.^[40]

The main controversy on skin-to-skin contact at a global level relates to the continued reliance on technology for care of low birth weight babies, and an assumption that the basic biological method of care on mother’s skin is likely to be harmful or dangerous.

The main controversy among proponents of Kangaroo Mother Care relates to eligibility to initiate kangaroo position: in the original Rey & Martinez model and as described in the WHO guidelines,^[6] the infant should be stable to "tolerate skin-to-skin contact".^[41]^[42] From a biological and neuroscience perspective, others argue that it is separation from mother that causes the instability,^[43]^[44]^[45]

Regarding ‘kangaroo nutrition’ there is little controversy, with accumulating evidence for the benefits of breastfeeding as such,^[46]^[47] and evidence that even preterm infants can exclusively breastfeed.^[48]^[49]

Further controversy concerns the ‘early discharge’, which is defended by the Fundacion Canguru, in Bogota, Colombia, and reported in evidence from a Cochrane review.^[50] In its origins, this was contextually correct in protecting hospitalised infants from cross-infections. Some argue however that where hospitals are not so overcrowded, and where home based care is not available or affordable, or where public transport is inadequate, that early discharge should not be practised.

Society and culture

The International Kangaroo Care Awareness Day has been celebrated worldwide on May 15 since 2011. It is a day to increase awareness to enhance practice of kangaroo care in NICUs, post-partum units, labor and delivery, and any hospital unit that has babies up to 3 months of age.

References

^ ^a ^b ^c Ludington-Hoe, S., Lewis, T., Morgan, K., Cong, X., Anderson, L., & Reese, S. (2006). Breast and infant temperatures with twins during shared kangaroo care. Journal of Ostetrics, Gynecologic, and Neonatal Nursing, 35 (2), 223-231.
^ Anderson GC, Marks EA, Wahlberg V. Kangaroo care for premature infants. Am J Nurs 1986 July;86(7):807-9.
^ Anderson GC. Current knowledge about skin-to-skin (kangaroo) care for preterm infants. J Perinatol 1991 September;11(3):216-26.
^ ^a ^b ^c Rey SE, Martinez GH. Maejo racional del nino prematuro. Proceedings of the Conference 1 Curso de Medicina Fetal y Neonatal, 1981;Bogota, Colombia: Fundacion Vivar, 1983. (Spanish).(Manuscript available in English from UNICEF, 3 UN Plaza, New York, NY: 10017).
^ "SSC PLACE - definition -". skintoskincontact.com. Retrieved 10 March 2017.
^ ^a ^b ^c WHO. Kangaroo mother care - a practical guide. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO; 2003.
^ ^a ^b Whitelaw A, Sleath K. Myth of the marsupial mother: home care of very low birth weight babies in Bogotá, Colombia. Lancet 1985 May 25;1(8439):1206-8.
^ De Chateau P. The influence of early contact on maternal and infant behaviour in primiparae. Birth and the Family Journal 1976;3:149-55.
^ ^a ^b Thomson ME, Hartsock TG, Larson C. The importance of immediate postnatal contact: its effect on breastfeeding. Can Fam Physician 1979 November;25:1374-8.
^ "Kangaroo Mother Care". www.kangaroomothercare.com. Retrieved 10 March 2017.
^ ^a ^b ^c Charpak, N., Ruiz, J., Zupan, J., Cattaneo, A., Figueroa, Z., Tessier, R., Cristo, M., Anderson, G., Ludington, S., Mendoza, S., Mokhachane, M., & Worku, B. (2005). Kangaroo mother care: 25 years after. Acta Paediatric, 94 (5), 514-522.
^ Cattaneo A, Davanzo R, Bergman N, Charpak N. Kangaroo mother care in low-income countries. International Network in Kangaroo Mother Care. J Trop Pediatr 1998 October;44(5):279-82.
^ Cattaneo A, Davanzo R, Worku B, Surjono A, Echeverria M, Bedri A et al. Kangaroo mother care for low birthweight infants: a randomized controlled trial in different settings. Acta Paediatr 1998 September;87(9):976-85.
^ "Susan Ludington's "KCBIB"".
^ Miles R, Cowan F, Glover V, Stevenson J, Modi N. A controlled trial of skin-to-skin contact in extremely preterm infants. Early Human Development 2006 July;82(7):447-55.
^ McKenna JJ, Thoman EB, Anders TF, Sadeh A, Schechtman VL, Glotzbach SF. Infant-parent co-sleeping in an evolutionary perspective: implications for understanding infant sleep development and the sudden infant death syndrome. Sleep 1993 April;16(3):263-82.
^ Hofer MA. Early relationships as regulators of infant physiology and behaviour. Acta Paediatr 1994;Suppl 397:9-18.
^ Arabadzisz D, Diaz-Heijtz R, Knuesel I, Weber E, Pilloud S, Dettling AC et al. Primate early life stress leads to long-term mild hippocampal decreases in corticosteroid receptor expression. Biol Psychiatry 2010 June 1;67(11):1106-9.
^ Sabatini MJ, Ebert P, Lewis DA, Levitt P, Cameron JL, Mirnics K. Amygdala gene expression correlates of social behavior in monkeys experiencing maternal separation. J Neurosci 2007 March 21;27(12):3295-304.
^ Ludington-Hoe SM, Ferreira C, Swinth J, Ceccardi JJ. Safe Criteria and Procedure for Kangaroo Care with Intubated Preterm Infants. JOGNN: Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic, & Neonatal Nursing 2003 September;32(5):579-88.
^ Westrup B. Family-centered developmentally supportive care in neonatal intensive care units. Encyclopedia of Early Childhood Develolment 2004;1-5.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Conde-Agudelo, A; Díaz-Rossello, JL (23 August 2016). "Kangaroo mother care to reduce morbidity and mortality in low birthweight infants". The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (8): CD002771. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD002771.pub4. PMID 27552521. Retrieved 10 March 2017.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Moore, ER; Bergman, N; Anderson, GC; Medley, N (25 November 2016). "Early skin-to-skin contact for mothers and their healthy newborn infants". The Cochrane database of systematic reviews. 11: CD003519. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003519.pub4. PMID 27885658.
^ Bergman NJ, Jurisoo LA. The ‘kangaroo-method’ for treating low birth weight babies in a developing country. Trop Doct 1994; 24(2): 57-60.
^ Worku B, Kassie A. Kangaroo mother care: a randomized controlled trial on effectiveness of early kangaroo mother care for the low birthweight infants in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. J Trop Pediatr 2005 April;51(2):93-7.
^ ^a ^b London, M., Ladewig, P., Ball, J., & Bindler, R. (2006). Maternal and child nursing care (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. (p. 573, 791 - 793)
^ Robles, M. (1995). Kangaroo care: The human incubator for the premature infant. University of Manitoba, Women’s Hospital in the Health Sciences Centre: Winnipeg, MN.
^ "Skin-to-skin contact requires SAFE TECHNIQUE". Kangaroo Mother Care. Retrieved 30 April 2013.
^ Mohrbacher, N., & Stock, J. (2003). The breastfeeding answer book. Schaumburg, IL: LaLeche League International. (pp. 285-287)
^ Tessier, R., Cristo, M., Velez, S., Giron, M., Figueroa de Calume, Z., Ruiz-Palaez, J., Charpak, Y., & Charpak, N. (1998). Kangaroo mother care and the bonding hypothesis. Pediatrics, 102 (2), e17-33.
^ "Fathers and skin-to-skin contact". Kangaroo Mother Care. Retrieved 30 April 2013.
^ Ludington-Hoe, S., Hosseini, R., & Torowicz, D. (2005). Skin-to-skin contact (kangaroo care) analgesia for preterm infant heel stick. AACN Clinical Issues, 16 (3), 373-387.
^ Feldman, R., Eidelman, A., Sirota, L., & Weller, A. (2002). Comparison of skin-to-skin (kangaroo) and traditional care: Parenting outcomes and preterm development. Pediatrics, 110 (1), 16-26.
^ McCain, G., Ludington-Hoe, S., Swinth, J., & Hadeed, A. (2005). Heart rate variability responses of a preterm infant to kangaroo care. Journal of Ostetrics, Gynecologic, and Neonatal Nursing, 34 (6), 689-694.
^ Penalva, O., & Schwartzman, J. (2006). Descriptive study of the clinical and nutritional profile and follow-up of premature babies in a Kangaroo Mother Care Program. Journal of Peditrics, 82 (1), 33-39.
^ Johnston, C., Stevens, B., Pinelli, J., Gibbins, S., Filion, F., Jack, A., Steele, S., Boyer, K., & Veilleux, A. (2003). Kangaroo care is effective in diminishing pain response in preterm neonates. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 157 (11), 1084-1088.
^ Ellett, M., Bleah, D., & Parris, S. (2004). Feasibility of using kangaroo (skin-to-skin) care with colicky infants. Gastroenterol Nursing, 27 (1), 9-15.
^ Dodd, V. (2005). Implications of kangaroo care for growth and development in preterm infants. Journal of Ostetrics, Gynecologic, and Neonatal Nursing, 34 (2), 218-232.
^ "Skin to skin contact". The Baby Friendly Initiative. UNICEF United Kingdom. 2010. Retrieved 30 April 2013.
^ Worku, B; Kassie, A (April 2005). "Kangaroo mother care: a randomized controlled trial on effectiveness of early kangaroo mother care for the low birthweight infants in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia". Journal of tropical pediatrics. 51 (2): 93–7. PMID 15840760. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
^ Charpak N, Ruiz-Pelaez JG, Figueroa dC. Current knowledge of Kangaroo Mother Intervention. Curr Opin Pediatr 1996 April;8(2):108-12.
^ Charpak N, de Calume ZF, Ruiz JG. "The Bogota Declaration on Kangaroo Mother Care": conclusions at the second international workshop on the method. Second International Workshop of Kangaroo Mother Care. Acta Paediatr 2000 September;89(9):1137-40.
^ Bergman NJ, Linley LL, Fawcus SR. Randomized controlled trial of skin-to-skin contact from birth versus conventional incubator for physiological stabilization in 1200- to 2199-gram newborns. Acta Paediatr 2004 June;93(6):779-85.
^ Bergman N. The neuroscience of birth - and the case for zero separation. Curationis 2014;37(2):1-4.
^ Phillips R. The Sacred Hour: Uninterrupted Skin-to-Skin Contact Immediately After Birth. Newborn and Infant Nursing Reviews 2013;13(2):67-72.
^ ACOG. Special Report from ACOG - Breastfeeding: Maternal and infant aspects. ACOG Clinical review 2007;12(1 (supplement)):1-16.
^ Eidelman AI. Breastfeeding and the Use of Human Milk: An Analysis of the American Academy of Pediatrics 2012 Breastfeeding Policy Statement. Breastfeed Med 2012 September 4.
^ Nyqvist KH, Rubertsson C, Ewald U, Sjoden P. Development of the Preterm Infant Breastfeeding Behavior Scale (PIBBS): a study of nurse-mother agreement. J HUM LACT 1996 September;12(3):207-19.
^ Nyqvist KH. Early attainment of breastfeeding competence in very preterm infants. Acta Paediatrica 2008 June;97(6):776-81.
^ Cite error: The named reference ReferenceC was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

External links

[Ludington-Hoe-1] Ludington-Hoe, S., Lewis, T., Morgan, K., Cong, X., Anderson, L., & Reese, S. (2006). Breast and infant temperatures with twins during shared kangaroo care. Journal of Ostetrics, Gynecologic, and Neonatal Nursing, 35 (2), 223-231.

[2] Anderson GC, Marks EA, Wahlberg V. Kangaroo care for premature infants. Am J Nurs 1986 July;86(7):807-9.

[3] Anderson GC. Current knowledge about skin-to-skin (kangaroo) care for preterm infants. J Perinatol 1991 September;11(3):216-26.

[Rey_SE_1983-4] Rey SE, Martinez GH. Maejo racional del nino prematuro. Proceedings of the Conference 1 Curso de Medicina Fetal y Neonatal, 1981;Bogota, Colombia: Fundacion Vivar, 1983. (Spanish).(Manuscript available in English from UNICEF, 3 UN Plaza, New York, NY: 10017).

[SSC-5] "SSC PLACE - definition -". skintoskincontact.com. Retrieved 10 March 2017.

[WHO_2003-6] WHO. Kangaroo mother care - a practical guide. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO; 2003.

[Whitelaw-7] Whitelaw A, Sleath K. Myth of the marsupial mother: home care of very low birth weight babies in Bogotá, Colombia. Lancet 1985 May 25;1(8439):1206-8.

[8] De Chateau P. The influence of early contact on maternal and infant behaviour in primiparae. Birth and the Family Journal 1976;3:149-55.

[ReferenceA-9] Thomson ME, Hartsock TG, Larson C. The importance of immediate postnatal contact: its effect on breastfeeding. Can Fam Physician 1979 November;25:1374-8.

[KMC-10] "Kangaroo Mother Care". www.kangaroomothercare.com. Retrieved 10 March 2017.

[Charpak,_N._2005-11] Charpak, N., Ruiz, J., Zupan, J., Cattaneo, A., Figueroa, Z., Tessier, R., Cristo, M., Anderson, G., Ludington, S., Mendoza, S., Mokhachane, M., & Worku, B. (2005). Kangaroo mother care: 25 years after. Acta Paediatric, 94 (5), 514-522.

[12] Cattaneo A, Davanzo R, Bergman N, Charpak N. Kangaroo mother care in low-income countries. International Network in Kangaroo Mother Care. J Trop Pediatr 1998 October;44(5):279-82.

[13] Cattaneo A, Davanzo R, Worku B, Surjono A, Echeverria M, Bedri A et al. Kangaroo mother care for low birthweight infants: a randomized controlled trial in different settings. Acta Paediatr 1998 September;87(9):976-85.

[14] "Susan Ludington's "KCBIB"".

[15] Miles R, Cowan F, Glover V, Stevenson J, Modi N. A controlled trial of skin-to-skin contact in extremely preterm infants. Early Human Development 2006 July;82(7):447-55.

[16] McKenna JJ, Thoman EB, Anders TF, Sadeh A, Schechtman VL, Glotzbach SF. Infant-parent co-sleeping in an evolutionary perspective: implications for understanding infant sleep development and the sudden infant death syndrome. Sleep 1993 April;16(3):263-82.

[17] Hofer MA. Early relationships as regulators of infant physiology and behaviour. Acta Paediatr 1994;Suppl 397:9-18.

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[CochraneKMC2016-22] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Conde-Agudelo, A; Díaz-Rossello, JL (23 August 2016). "Kangaroo mother care to reduce morbidity and mortality in low birthweight infants". The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (8): CD002771. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD002771.pub4. PMID 27552521. Retrieved 10 March 2017.

[CochraneSSC2015-23] Moore, ER; Bergman, N; Anderson, GC; Medley, N (25 November 2016). "Early skin-to-skin contact for mothers and their healthy newborn infants". The Cochrane database of systematic reviews. 11: CD003519. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003519.pub4. PMID 27885658.

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[London,_M._2006_p._573,_791-26] London, M., Ladewig, P., Ball, J., & Bindler, R. (2006). Maternal and child nursing care (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. (p. 573, 791 - 793)

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[Mohrbacher,_N._2003_pp._285-287-29] Mohrbacher, N., & Stock, J. (2003). The breastfeeding answer book. Schaumburg, IL: LaLeche League International. (pp. 285-287)

[30] Tessier, R., Cristo, M., Velez, S., Giron, M., Figueroa de Calume, Z., Ruiz-Palaez, J., Charpak, Y., & Charpak, N. (1998). Kangaroo mother care and the bonding hypothesis. Pediatrics, 102 (2), e17-33.

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[32] Ludington-Hoe, S., Hosseini, R., & Torowicz, D. (2005). Skin-to-skin contact (kangaroo care) analgesia for preterm infant heel stick. AACN Clinical Issues, 16 (3), 373-387.

[33] Feldman, R., Eidelman, A., Sirota, L., & Weller, A. (2002). Comparison of skin-to-skin (kangaroo) and traditional care: Parenting outcomes and preterm development. Pediatrics, 110 (1), 16-26.

[34] McCain, G., Ludington-Hoe, S., Swinth, J., & Hadeed, A. (2005). Heart rate variability responses of a preterm infant to kangaroo care. Journal of Ostetrics, Gynecologic, and Neonatal Nursing, 34 (6), 689-694.

[35] Penalva, O., & Schwartzman, J. (2006). Descriptive study of the clinical and nutritional profile and follow-up of premature babies in a Kangaroo Mother Care Program. Journal of Peditrics, 82 (1), 33-39.

[36] Johnston, C., Stevens, B., Pinelli, J., Gibbins, S., Filion, F., Jack, A., Steele, S., Boyer, K., & Veilleux, A. (2003). Kangaroo care is effective in diminishing pain response in preterm neonates. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 157 (11), 1084-1088.

[37] Ellett, M., Bleah, D., & Parris, S. (2004). Feasibility of using kangaroo (skin-to-skin) care with colicky infants. Gastroenterol Nursing, 27 (1), 9-15.

[38] Dodd, V. (2005). Implications of kangaroo care for growth and development in preterm infants. Journal of Ostetrics, Gynecologic, and Neonatal Nursing, 34 (2), 218-232.

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@@ Line 58: / Line 58: @@
 ==Clinical evidence==
-In 2016 a [[Cochrane (organisation)|Cochrane]] review, "Kangaroo mother care to reduce morbidity and mortality in low birthweight infants", was published bringing together data from 21 studies including 3042 low birth-weight babies (less than {{conv|1500|g}} at birth). This review shows that babies provided kangaroo mother care have a reduced risk of death, hospital-acquired infection, and low body temperature (hypothermia); it is also associated with increased weight gain, growth in length, and rates of breastfeeding.
+In 2016 a [[Cochrane (organisation)|Cochrane]] review, "Kangaroo mother care to reduce morbidity and mortality in low birthweight infants", was published bringing together data from 21 studies including 3042 low birth-weight babies (less than {{conv|1500|g}} at birth).<ref name="CochraneKMC2016"/> This review shows that babies provided kangaroo mother care have a reduced risk of death, hospital-acquired infection, and low body temperature (hypothermia); it is also associated with increased weight gain, growth in length, and rates of breastfeeding.<ref name="CochraneKMC2016">{{cite journal|last1=Conde-Agudelo|first1=A|last2=Díaz-Rossello|first2=JL|title=Kangaroo mother care to reduce morbidity and mortality in low birthweight infants.|journal=The Cochrane database of systematic reviews|date=23 August 2016|issue=8|pages=CD002771|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD002771.pub4|pmid=27552521|url=http://www.cochrane.org/CD002771/NEONATAL_kangaroo-mother-care-reduce-morbidity-and-mortality-low-birthweight-infants|accessdate=10 March 2017}}</ref>
-A further Cochrane review on "Early skin-to-skin contact for mothers and their healthy babies", updated in 2015, provides clinical support for the scientific rationale but looks at evidence for early skin-to-skin contact for healthy babies.<ref name="ReferenceB">Moore ER, Anderson GC, Bergman N, Dowswell T. Early skin-to-skin contact for mothers and their healthy newborn infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2012;5:CD003519.</ref> The available evidence shows that early skin-to-skin contact is associated with increased rates of breastfeeding, and some evidence of improved physiological outcomes (early stability of the heart rate and breathing) for the babies.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>
+A further Cochrane review on "Early skin-to-skin contact for mothers and their healthy babies", updated in 2015, provides clinical support for the scientific rationale but looks at evidence for early skin-to-skin contact for healthy babies.<ref name="CochraneSSC2015"/> The available evidence shows that early skin-to-skin contact is associated with increased rates of breastfeeding, and some evidence of improved physiological outcomes (early stability of the heart rate and breathing) for the babies.<ref name="CochraneSSC2015">{{cite journal|last1=Moore|first1=ER|last2=Bergman|first2=N|last3=Anderson|first3=GC|last4=Medley|first4=N|title=Early skin-to-skin contact for mothers and their healthy newborn infants.|journal=The Cochrane database of systematic reviews|date=25 November 2016|volume=11|pages=CD003519|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD003519.pub4|pmid=27885658}}</ref>
 A randomized controlled trial published in 2004 reports that babies born between 1200 and 2200g became physiologically stable in skin-to-skin contact starting from birth, compared to similar babies in incubators.<ref>Bergman NJ, Jurisoo LA. The ‘kangaroo-method’ for treating low birth weight babies in a developing country.  Trop Doct 1994; 24(2): 57-60.</ref> In another randomized controlled trial conducted in Ethiopia, survival improved when skin-to-skin contact was started before 6 hours of age.<ref>Worku B, Kassie A. Kangaroo mother care: a randomized controlled trial on effectiveness of early kangaroo mother care for the low birthweight infants in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. J Trop Pediatr 2005 April;51(2):93-7.</ref>
-While Kangaroo Mother Care generally implies care of low birth weight and preterm infants, skin-to-skin contact should be regarded as normal and basic for all newly born humans.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> The original research by Thomson showed increased breastfeeding rates when skin-to-skin contact started at birth, and when early breastfeeding was encouraged every two hours.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Currently, the impact of skin-to-skin contact on breastfeeding is the scientific rationale for Step 4 of the [[Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative]] (BFHI), which requires help to "initiate breastfeeding within one hour of birth".
+While Kangaroo Mother Care generally implies care of low birth weight and preterm infants, skin-to-skin contact should be regarded as normal and basic for all newly born humans.<ref name="CochraneSSC2015"/> The original research by Thomson showed increased breastfeeding rates when skin-to-skin contact started at birth, and when early breastfeeding was encouraged every two hours.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Currently, the impact of skin-to-skin contact on breastfeeding is the scientific rationale for Step 4 of the [[Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative]] (BFHI), which requires help to "initiate breastfeeding within one hour of birth".
 ==Eligibility criteria==
@@ Line 87: / Line 87: @@
 ===For parents===
-Kangaroo care is beneficial for parents because it promotes attachment and bonding, improves parental confidence, and helps to promote increased milk production and breastfeeding success.<ref name="Ludington-Hoe" /><ref name="Mohrbacher, N. 2003 pp. 285-287">Mohrbacher, N., & Stock, J. (2003). The breastfeeding answer book. Schaumburg, IL: LaLeche League International. (pp. 285-287)</ref><ref>Tessier, R., Cristo, M., Velez, S., Giron, M., Figueroa de Calume, Z., Ruiz-Palaez, J., Charpak, Y., & Charpak, N. (1998). Kangaroo mother care and the bonding hypothesis. Pediatrics, 102 (2), e17-33.</ref><ref name="Conde-Agudelo, A. 2003">Conde-Agudelo, A., Diaz-Rossello, J., & Belizan, J. (2003). Kangaroo mother care to reduce morbidity and mortality in low birthweight infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, (2), CD002771.</ref><ref>Kirsten, G., Bergman, N., & Hann, F. (2001). Part 2: The management of breastfeeding. Kangaroo mother care in the nursery. Pediatric Clinics of North America, 48 (2).</ref> Also<ref>Parents’ Perception of Skin-to-Skin Care With Their Preterm Infants Requiring Assisted Ventilation Madalynn Neu RN, PhD* Article first published online: 28 JUL 2006 DOI: 10.1111/j.1552-6909.1999.tb01980.x</ref>
+Kangaroo care is beneficial for parents because it promotes attachment and bonding, improves parental confidence, and helps to promote increased milk production and breastfeeding success.<ref name="Ludington-Hoe" /><ref name="CochraneKMC2016"/><ref name="Mohrbacher, N. 2003 pp. 285-287">Mohrbacher, N., & Stock, J. (2003). The breastfeeding answer book. Schaumburg, IL: LaLeche League International. (pp. 285-287)</ref><ref>Tessier, R., Cristo, M., Velez, S., Giron, M., Figueroa de Calume, Z., Ruiz-Palaez, J., Charpak, Y., & Charpak, N. (1998). Kangaroo mother care and the bonding hypothesis. Pediatrics, 102 (2), e17-33.</ref>
 ===For fathers===
@@ Line 94: / Line 94: @@
 ===For pre-term and low-birth-weight infants===
-Kangaroo care arguably offers the most benefits for pre-term and low-birth-weight infants, who experience more normalized temperature, heart rate, and respiratory rate,<ref>Ludington-Hoe, S., Hosseini, R., & Torowicz, D. (2005). Skin-to-skin contact (kangaroo care) analgesia for preterm infant heel stick. AACN Clinical Issues, 16 (3), 373-387.</ref> increased weight gain,<ref name="Charpak, N. 2005"/> fewer nosocomial infections and reduced incidence of respiratory tract disease.<ref name="Conde-Agudelo, A. 2003"/> Additionally, studies suggest that preterm infants who experience kangaroo care have improved cognitive development, decreased stress levels, reduced pain responses, normalized growth, and positive effects on motor development.<ref name="Ludington-Hoe" /><ref name="Charpak, N. 2005"/><ref>Feldman, R., Eidelman, A., Sirota, L., & Weller, A. (2002). Comparison of skin-to-skin (kangaroo) and traditional care: Parenting outcomes and preterm development. Pediatrics, 110 (1), 16-26.</ref><ref>McCain, G., Ludington-Hoe, S., Swinth, J., & Hadeed, A. (2005). Heart rate variability responses of a preterm infant to kangaroo care. Journal of Ostetrics, Gynecologic, and Neonatal Nursing, 34 (6), 689-694.</ref><ref>Penalva, O., & Schwartzman, J. (2006). Descriptive study of the clinical and nutritional profile and follow-up of premature babies in a Kangaroo Mother Care Program. Journal of Peditrics, 82 (1), 33-39.</ref><ref>Johnston, C., Stevens, B., Pinelli, J., Gibbins, S., Filion, F., Jack, A., Steele, S., Boyer, K., & Veilleux, A. (2003). Kangaroo care is effective in diminishing pain response in preterm neonates. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 157 (11), 1084-1088.</ref> Kangaroo care also helps to improve sleep patterns of infants, and may be a good intervention for colic.<ref>Ellett, M., Bleah, D., & Parris, S. (2004). Feasibility of using kangaroo (skin-to-skin) care with colicky infants. Gastroenterol Nursing, 27 (1), 9-15.</ref> Earlier discharge from hospital is also a possible outcome <ref name="London, M. 2006 p. 573, 791"/> Finally, kangaroo care helps to promote frequent breastfeeding, and can enhance mother-infant bonding.<ref>Dodd, V. (2005). Implications of kangaroo care for growth and development in preterm infants. Journal of Ostetrics, Gynecologic, and Neonatal Nursing, 34 (2), 218-232.</ref> Evidence from a recent systematic review supports the use of kangaroo mother care as a substitute for conventional neonatal care in settings where resources are limited."<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Conde-Agudelo A, Díaz-Rossello JL | title = Kangaroo mother care to reduce morbidity and mortality in low birthweight infants | journal = Cochrane Database Syst Rev | issue = 4 | pages = CD002771 | year = 2014 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD002771.pub3}}</ref>
+Kangaroo care arguably offers the most benefits for pre-term and low-birth-weight infants, who experience more normalized temperature, heart rate, and respiratory rate,<ref name="CochraneSSC2015"/><ref>Ludington-Hoe, S., Hosseini, R., & Torowicz, D. (2005). Skin-to-skin contact (kangaroo care) analgesia for preterm infant heel stick. AACN Clinical Issues, 16 (3), 373-387.</ref> increased weight gain,<ref name="CochraneKMC2016"/><ref name="Charpak, N. 2005"/> and fewer hospital-acquired infections.<ref name="CochraneKMC2016"/> Additionally, studies suggest that preterm infants who experience kangaroo care have improved cognitive development, decreased stress levels, reduced pain responses, normalized growth, and positive effects on motor development.<ref name="Ludington-Hoe" /><ref name="Charpak, N. 2005"/><ref>Feldman, R., Eidelman, A., Sirota, L., & Weller, A. (2002). Comparison of skin-to-skin (kangaroo) and traditional care: Parenting outcomes and preterm development. Pediatrics, 110 (1), 16-26.</ref><ref>McCain, G., Ludington-Hoe, S., Swinth, J., & Hadeed, A. (2005). Heart rate variability responses of a preterm infant to kangaroo care. Journal of Ostetrics, Gynecologic, and Neonatal Nursing, 34 (6), 689-694.</ref><ref>Penalva, O., & Schwartzman, J. (2006). Descriptive study of the clinical and nutritional profile and follow-up of premature babies in a Kangaroo Mother Care Program. Journal of Peditrics, 82 (1), 33-39.</ref><ref>Johnston, C., Stevens, B., Pinelli, J., Gibbins, S., Filion, F., Jack, A., Steele, S., Boyer, K., & Veilleux, A. (2003). Kangaroo care is effective in diminishing pain response in preterm neonates. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 157 (11), 1084-1088.</ref> Kangaroo care also helps to improve sleep patterns of infants, and may be a good intervention for colic.<ref>Ellett, M., Bleah, D., & Parris, S. (2004). Feasibility of using kangaroo (skin-to-skin) care with colicky infants. Gastroenterol Nursing, 27 (1), 9-15.</ref> Earlier discharge from hospital is also a possible outcome <ref name="London, M. 2006 p. 573, 791"/> Finally, kangaroo care helps to promote frequent breastfeeding, and can enhance mother-infant bonding.<ref>Dodd, V. (2005). Implications of kangaroo care for growth and development in preterm infants. Journal of Ostetrics, Gynecologic, and Neonatal Nursing, 34 (2), 218-232.</ref> Evidence from a recent systematic review supports the use of kangaroo mother care as a substitute for conventional neonatal care in settings where resources are limited."<ref name="CochraneKMC2016"/>
 ===Promotes more successful breastfeeding of full-term infants===
@@ Line 119: / Line 119: @@
 ==Controversy==
-The Cochrane review<ref>Conde-Agudelo, Diaz Rosello, updated 2014</ref>  provides the current evidence base for Kangaroo Mother Care, including only articles that practice all components.<ref name="ReferenceC">Conde-Agudelo A, az-Rossello JL. Kangaroo mother care to reduce morbidity and mortality in low birthweight infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2014;4:CD002771.</ref> In the latest update, sufficient evidence is reported that Kangaroo Mother Care does reduce mortality, and also morbidity in resource limited settings. However, the strength of this evidence is really based on only one article, which starts the kangaroo position component on unstable babies on the first day of life.
+The Cochrane review provides the current evidence base for Kangaroo Mother Care, including only articles that practice all components.<ref name="CochraneKMC2016"/> In the latest update, there is sufficient evidence to conclude that Kangaroo Mother Care reduces mortality, and also morbidity in resource limited settings. However, the strength of this evidence is based largely on only one study which starts the kangaroo position component on unstable babies on the first day of life.<ref name="Worku2005">{{cite journal|last1=Worku|first1=B|last2=Kassie|first2=A|title=Kangaroo mother care: a randomized controlled trial on effectiveness of early kangaroo mother care for the low birthweight infants in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.|journal=Journal of tropical pediatrics|date=April 2005|volume=51|issue=2|pages=93-7|pmid=15840760|accessdate=10 March 2017}}</ref>
 The main controversy on skin-to-skin contact at a global level relates to the continued reliance on technology for care of low birth weight babies, and an assumption that the basic biological method of care on mother’s skin is likely to be harmful or dangerous.