Deforestation: Difference between revisions
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{{for|the computer science term|Deforestation (computer science)}} |
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{{redirect|Deforest|other uses|DeForest (disambiguation)}} |
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{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2017}} |
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[[File:Bolivia-Deforestation-EO.JPG|thumb|300px|Satellite photograph of deforestation in progress in eastern [[Bolivia]]. Worldwide, 10 percent of wilderness areas were lost between 1990 and 2015.<ref>[http://www.rts.ch/info/sciences-tech/8003034-un-dizieme-des-terres-sauvages-ont-disparu-en-deux-decennies.html "Un dizième des terres sauvages ont disparu en deux décennies"] ([[Radio Télévision Suisse]]) citing {{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.cub.2016.08.049|pmid=27618267|title=Catastrophic Declines in Wilderness Areas Undermine Global Environment Targets|journal=Current Biology|volume=26|issue=21<!--|pages=2929–2934--> |pages=2929–2934|year=2016|last1=Watson|first1=James E.M.|last2=Shanahan|first2=Danielle F.|last3=Di Marco|first3=Moreno|last4=Allan|first4=James|last5=Laurance|first5=William F.|last6=Sanderson|first6=Eric W.|last7=MacKey|first7=Brendan|last8=Venter|first8=Oscar}}</ref>]] |
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'''Deforestation''', '''clearance''' or '''clearing''' is the removal of a [[forest]] or stand of trees where the [[land conversion|land is thereafter converted]] to a non-forest use.<ref>[http://dictionaryofforestry.org/dict/term/deforestation SAFnet Dictionary|Definition For [deforestation]]. Dictionary of forestry.org (29 July 2008). Retrieved 2011-05-15.</ref> Examples of deforestation include conversion of forestland to farms, ranches, or urban use. The most concentrated deforestation occurs in [[tropical rainforest]]s.<ref>Bradford, Alina. (4 March 2015) [http://www.livescience.com/27692-deforestation.html Deforestation: Facts, Causes & Effects]. Livescience.com. Retrieved 2016-11-13.</ref> About 30% of Earth's land surface is covered by forests.<ref>[http://www.worldwildlife.org/threats/deforestation Deforestation | Threats | WWF]. Worldwildlife.org. Retrieved 13 November 2016.</ref> |
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Deforestation occurs for multiple reasons: trees are cut down to be used for building or sold as fuel, (sometimes in the form of charcoal or timber), while cleared land is used as [[pasture]] for livestock and plantation. The removal of trees without sufficient [[reforestation]] has resulted in damage to [[habitat]], [[biodiversity]] loss and [[arid]]ity. It has adverse impacts on [[biosequestration]] of atmospheric [[carbon dioxide]]. Deforestation has also been used in [[war]] to deprive the enemy of vital resources and cover for its forces. Modern examples of this were the use of [[Agent Orange]] by the British military in Malaya during the [[Malayan Emergency]] and the United States military in Vietnam during the [[Vietnam War]]. As of 2005, net deforestation rates have ceased to increase in countries with a per capita [[gross domestic product|GDP]] of at least US$4,600.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kauppi|first1=P. E.|last2=Ausubel|first2=J. H.|last3=Fang|first3=J.|last4=Mather|first4=A. S.|last5=Sedjo|first5=R. A.|last6=Waggoner|first6=P. E.|title=Returning forests analyzed with the forest identity|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=103|issue=46|year=2006|pmid=17101996|pmc=1635979|doi=10.1073/pnas.0608343103|pages=17574–9|bibcode=2006PNAS..10317574K}}</ref><ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/21/science/earth/21tier.html?_r=2 "Use Energy, Get Rich and Save the Planet"], ''The New York Times'', 20 April 2009.</ref> Deforested regions typically incur significant adverse [[soil erosion]] and frequently degrade into [[wikt:wasteland|wasteland]]. |
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Disregard of ascribed value, lax forest management and deficient environmental laws are some of the factors that allow deforestation to occur on a large scale. In many countries, deforestation, both naturally occurring and human-induced, is an ongoing issue. Deforestation causes [[extinction]], changes to climatic conditions, [[desertification]], and displacement of populations as observed by current conditions and in the past through the fossil record.<ref name=Benton>{{cite journal|author= Sahney, S., Benton, M.J. & Falcon-Lang, H.J.|year=2010|title= Rainforest collapse triggered Pennsylvanian tetrapod diversification in Euramerica|journal=Geology|doi=10.1130/G31182.1|volume = 38|pages = 1079–1082|issue=12 |bibcode=2010Geo....38.1079S}}</ref> More than half of all plant and land animal species in the world live in tropical forests.<ref name="Rainforest Facts">[http://www.nature.org/ourinitiatives/urgentissues/rainforests/rainforests-facts.xml Rainforest Facts]. Nature.org (1 November 2016). Retrieved 2016-11-13.</ref> |
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Between 2000 and 2012, [[Orders of magnitude (area)#108 to 1014 sqm|{{convert|2.3|e6sqkm|sqmi|abbr=off}}]] of forests around the world were cut down.<ref name="nature1">[http://www.nature.org/ourinitiatives/urgentissues/rainforests/rainforests-facts.xml "Facts About Rainforests"]. [[The Nature Conservancy]]. Retrieved 19 October 2015.</ref> As a result of deforestation, only {{convert|6.2|e6km2|e6mi2|abbr=off}} remain of the original {{convert|16|e6km2|e6mi2|abbr=off|sigfig=1}} of forest that formerly covered the Earth.<ref name="nature1"/> |
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==Causes== |
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According to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) secretariat, the overwhelming direct cause of deforestation is agriculture. [[Subsistence farming]] is responsible for 48% of deforestation; [[commercial agriculture]] is responsible for 32%; [[logging]] is responsible for 14%, and fuel wood removals make up 5%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://unfccc.int/files/essential_background/background_publications_htmlpdf/application/pdf/pub_07_financial_flows.pdf|author=UNFCCC|title=Investment and financial flows to address climate change|work=unfccc.int|publisher=UNFCCC|page=81 |year=2007}}</ref> |
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Experts do not agree on whether industrial logging is an important contributor to global deforestation.<ref name=causesof>{{cite journal|url=https://ideas.repec.org/a/oup/wbrobs/v14y1999i1p73-98.html|author1=Angelsen, Arild |author2=Kaimowitz, David |title=Rethinking the causes of deforestation: Lessons from economic models|pmid=12322119|doi=10.1093/wbro/14.1.73|jstor=3986539|journal=The World Bank Research Observer|volume= 14|issue=1|publisher=Oxford University Press|pages=73–98 |date=February 1999}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=http://studentresearch.wcp.muohio.edu/BiogeogDiversityDisturbance/ReflectionsDeforestCrisis.pdf|first=William F.|last=Laurance|title=Reflections on the tropical deforestation crisis|journal=Biological Conservation|volume =91|issue= 2–3|date=December 1999|pages=109–117|doi=10.1016/S0006-3207(99)00088-9}}</ref> Some argue that poor people are more likely to clear forest because they have no alternatives, others that the poor lack the ability to pay for the materials and labour needed to clear forest.<ref name=causesof /> One study found that population increases due to high fertility rates were a primary driver of tropical deforestation in only 8% of cases.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.freenetwork.org/resources/documents/2-5Deforestationtropical.pdf|title=Proximate Causes and Underlying Driving Forces of Tropical Deforestation|date=February 2002|journal=BioScience|volume= 52|issue= 2|pages=143–150|doi=10.1641/0006-3568(2002)052[0143:PCAUDF]2.0.CO;2|last1=Geist|first1=Helmut J.|last2=Lambin|first2=Eric F.|year=2002}}</ref> |
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Other causes of contemporary deforestation may include [[Political corruption|corruption]] of government institutions,<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/breakingnews/nation/view_article.php?article_id=110193|title=Corruption blamed for deforestation|first=T.J.|last=Burgonio|publisher=Philippine Daily Inquirer|date=3 January 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wrm.org.uy/bulletin/74/Uganda.html|title=WRM Bulletin Number 74|publisher=World Rainforest Movement|date=September 2003}}</ref> the [[international inequality|inequitable distribution of wealth and power]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange2/current/lectures/deforest/deforest.html|title=Global Deforestation|work=Global Change Curriculum|publisher=University of Michigan Global Change Program|date=4 January 2006}}</ref> [[population growth]]<ref name=population1 /> and [[Human overpopulation|overpopulation]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://rainforests.mongabay.com/0816.htm|title=Impact of Population and Poverty on Rainforests|first=Rhett A|last=Butler|work=Mongabay.com / A Place Out of Time: Tropical Rainforests and the Perils They Face|accessdate=13 May 2009}}</ref><ref name=r1>{{cite web|url=http://www.umich.edu/~gs265/society/deforestation.htm|title=The Choice: Doomsday or Arbor Day|author1=Stock, Jocelyn |author2=Rochen, Andy |work=umich.edu}}</ref> and [[urbanization]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.allacademic.com/meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/1/0/7/4/8/p107488_index.html|title=Demographics, Democracy, Development, Disparity and Deforestation: A Crossnational Assessment of the Social Causes of Deforestation|author=Ehrhardt-Martinez, Karen|work=Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Sociological Association, Atlanta Hilton Hotel, Atlanta, GA, 16 August 2003|accessdate=13 May 2009}}</ref> [[Globalization]] is often viewed as another root cause of deforestation,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/display.article?id=9366|title=The Double Edge of Globalization|publisher=Yale University Press|date=June 2007|work=YaleGlobal Online}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://rainforests.mongabay.com/0805.htm|title=Human Threats to Rainforests—Economic Restructuring|first=Rhett A|last=Butler|work=Mongabay.com / A Place Out of Time: Tropical Rainforests and the Perils They Face|accessdate=13 May 2009}}</ref> though there are cases in which the impacts of globalization (new flows of labor, capital, commodities, and ideas) have promoted localized forest recovery.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.spa.ucla.edu/cgpr/docs/sdarticle1.pdf|title=Globalization, Forest Resurgence, and Environmental Politics in El Salvador|journal=World Development |volume=34|issue= 2|pages=308–323|year=2006|doi=10.1016/j.worlddev.2005.09.005|last1=Hecht|first1=Susanna B.|last2=Kandel|first2=Susan|last3=Gomes|first3=Ileana|last4=Cuellar|first4=Nelson|last5=Rosa|first5=Herman}}</ref> |
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[[File:Riau deforestation 2006.jpg|thumb|The last batch of sawnwood from the [[Peat swamp forest|peat forest]] in Indragiri Hulu, Sumatra, [[Deforestation in Indonesia|Indonesia]]. Deforestation for [[Elaeis guineensis|oil palm]] plantation.]] |
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In 2000 the United Nations [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] (FAO) found that "the role of population dynamics in a local setting may vary from decisive to negligible," and that deforestation can result from "a combination of population pressure and stagnating economic, social and technological conditions."<ref name=population1>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/sd/WPdirect/WPan0050.htm|title=Population and deforestation|author=Marcoux, Alain |date=August 2000|work=SD Dimensions|publisher=Sustainable Development Department, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)}}</ref> |
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The degradation of forest ecosystems has also been traced to economic incentives that make forest conversion appear more profitable than forest conservation.<ref name=economicvalue>{{cite journal|url=http://www.cbd.int/doc/external/academic/forest-es-2003-en.pdf|last=Pearce|first=David W|title=The Economic Value of Forest Ecosystems|journal=Ecosystem Health|volume= 7|issue=4|date=December 2001|pages=284–296|doi=10.1046/j.1526-0992.2001.01037.x}}</ref> Many important forest functions have no markets, and hence, no economic value that is readily apparent to the forests' owners or the communities that rely on forests for their well-being.<ref name=economicvalue /> From the perspective of the developing world, the benefits of forest as carbon sinks or biodiversity reserves go primarily to richer developed nations and there is insufficient compensation for these services. Developing countries feel that some countries in the developed world, such as the United States of America, cut down their forests centuries ago and benefited economically from this deforestation, and that it is hypocritical to deny developing countries the same opportunities, i.e. that the poor shouldn't have to bear the cost of preservation when the rich created the problem.<ref name=costarica>{{cite journal |title=Is there too much or too little natural forest in the Atlantic Zone of Costa Rica?|journal=Canadian Journal of Forest Research|volume=30|issue=3|doi=10.1139/x99-225|year=2000|pages=495–506|last1=Bulte|first1=Erwin H|last2=Joenje|first2=Mark|last3=Jansen|first3=Hans GP}}</ref> |
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Some commentators have noted a shift in the drivers of deforestation over the past 30 years.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://news.mongabay.com/Butler_and_Laurance-TREE.pdf|author1=Butler, Rhett A. |author2=Laurance, William F.|title=New strategies for conserving tropical forests|date=August 2008|journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution|volume= 23|issue= 9|pages=469–472|doi=10.1016/j.tree.2008.05.006}}</ref> Whereas deforestation was primarily driven by subsistence activities and government-sponsored development projects like [[transmigration program|transmigration]] in countries like [[Indonesia]] and [[colonization]] in [[Latin America]], [[India]], [[Java]], and so on, during the late 19th century and the earlier half of the 20th century, by the 1990s the majority of deforestation was caused by industrial factors, including extractive industries, large-scale cattle ranching, and extensive agriculture.<ref name=rud>Rudel, T.K. (2005) [https://books.google.com/books?id=j4AvOb_R9h8C&printsec=frontcover ''Tropical Forests: Regional Paths of Destruction and Regeneration in the Late 20th Century'']. Columbia University Press {{ISBN|0-231-13195-X}}</ref> |
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==Environmental effects== |
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===Atmospheric=== |
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[[File:Manantenina bushfire.jpg|thumb|Illegal "[[slash-and-burn]]" practice in [[Madagascar]], 2010]] |
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Deforestation is ongoing and is shaping [[climate]] and [[geography]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/news/topstory/2004/0603amazondry.html|title=NASA DATA SHOWS DEFORESTATION AFFECTS CLIMATE|date=9 June 2004|work=Nasa }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newsfromafrica.org/newsfromafrica/articles/art_9607.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718105636/http://www.newsfromafrica.org/newsfromafrica/articles/art_9607.html|dead-url=yes|archive-date=18 July 2011|title=Massive deforestation threatens food security|publisher=newsfromafrica.org|date=15 February 2005|author=Mweninguwe, Raphael }}</ref><ref>[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/05/070511100918.htm Confirmed: Deforestation Plays Critical Climate Change Role], ScienceDaily, 11 May 2007.</ref><ref>[http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=clearing-forests-may-transform-local-and-global-climate Clearing Forests May Transform Local—and Global—Climate; Researchers are finding that massive deforestation may have a profound, and possibly catastrophic, impact on local weather]. [[Scientific American]] (4 March 2013)</ref> |
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[[Deforestation and climate change|Deforestation is a contributor to global warming]],<ref>[http://www.fao.org/newsroom/en/news/2006/1000385/index.html Deforestation causes global warming], [[FAO]]</ref><ref name="Fearnidel">{{cite journal|doi=10.1890/03-5225|title=Tropical Deforestation and Greenhouse-Gas Emissions|journal=Ecological Applications|volume=14|issue=4|pages=982|year=2004|last1=Fearnside|first1=Philip M.|last2=Laurance|first2=William F.}}</ref> and is often cited as one of the major causes of the enhanced [[greenhouse effect]]. Tropical deforestation is responsible for approximately 20% of world greenhouse gas emissions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fondationchirac.eu/en/deforestation/|title=Fondation Chirac » Deforestation and desertification}}</ref> According to the [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] deforestation, mainly in tropical areas, could account for up to one-third of total [[human impact on the environment|anthropogenic]] [[carbon dioxide]] emissions.<ref name="IPCC deforestation">IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, Working Group I Report "The Physical Science Basis", [http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter7.pdf Section 7.3.3.1.5]. |
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p. 527</ref> But recent calculations suggest that carbon dioxide emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (excluding [[peatland]] emissions) contribute about 12% of total anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions with a range from 6 to 17%.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=CO<sub>2</sub> emissions from forest loss|journal=Nature Geoscience|volume=2 |year=2009|pages=737–738|doi=10.1038/ngeo671|issue=11|last1=Van Der Werf|first1=G. R.|last2=Morton|first2=D. C.|last3=Defries|first3=R. S.|last4=Olivier|first4=J. G. J.|last5=Kasibhatla|first5=P. S.|last6=Jackson|first6=R. B.|last7=Collatz|first7=G. J.|last8=Randerson|first8=J. T.|bibcode=2009NatGe...2..737V}}</ref> Deforestation causes carbon dioxide to linger in the atmosphere. As carbon dioxide accrues, it produces a layer in the atmosphere that traps radiation from the sun. The radiation converts to heat which causes global warming, which is better known as the greenhouse effect.<ref>Mumoki, Fiona (18 July 2006). [https://www.tigweb.org/youth-media/panorama/article.html?ContentID=7611 "The Effects of Deforestation on our Environment Today."] Panorama. TakingITGlobal..</ref> Plants remove [[carbon]] in the form of [[carbon dioxide]] from the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] during the process of [[photosynthesis]], but release some carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere during normal respiration. Only when actively growing can a tree or forest remove carbon, by storing it in plant tissues. Both the decay and burning of wood releases much of this stored carbon back to the atmosphere. In order for forests to take up carbon, there must be a net accumulation of wood. One way is for the wood to be harvested and turned into long-lived products, with new young trees replacing them.<ref>Prentice, I.C. [http://www.grida.no/CLIMATE/IPCC_TAR/wg1/pdf/TAR-03.PDF "The Carbon Cycle and Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide"]. IPCC</ref> Deforestation may also cause carbon stores held in soil to be released. Forests can be either sinks or sources depending upon environmental circumstances. Mature forests alternate between being net sinks and net sources of carbon dioxide (see [[carbon dioxide sink]] and [[carbon cycle]]). |
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In deforested areas, the land heats up faster and reaches a higher temperature, leading to localized upward motions that enhance the formation of clouds and ultimately produce more rainfall.<ref>[http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2004/jun/HQ_04183_deforestation.html NASA Data Shows Deforestation Affects Climate In The Amazon]. NASA News. 9 June 2004.</ref> However, according to the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory, the models used to investigate remote responses to tropical deforestation showed a broad but mild temperature increase all through the tropical atmosphere. The model predicted <0.2 °C warming for upper air at 700 mb and 500 mb. However, the model shows no significant changes in other areas besides the Tropics. Though the model showed no significant changes to the climate in areas other than the Tropics, this may not be the case since the model has possible errors and the results are never absolutely definite.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Weak Simulated Extratropical Responses to Complete Tropical Deforestation|journal=Journal of Climate|year=2006|volume=19|issue=12|pages=2835–2850|doi=10.1175/JCLI3737.1|last1=Findell|first1=Kirsten L.|last2=Knutson|first2=Thomas R.|last3=Milly|first3=P. C. D.|bibcode=2006JCli...19.2835F}}</ref> |
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[[File:SouthEast Asia fires Oct 2006.jpg|thumb|[[Deforestation in Borneo|Fires on Borneo and Sumatra]], 2006. People use [[slash-and-burn]] deforestation to clear land for agriculture.]] |
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[[Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation|Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD)]] in developing countries has emerged as a new potential to complement ongoing climate policies. The idea consists in providing financial compensations for the reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from deforestation and forest degradation".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iddri.org/Publications/Collections/Analyses/Why-are-we-seeing-REDD |title=Why are we seeing "REDD"? |author1=Wertz-Kanounnikoff, Sheila |author2=Rubio Alvarado, Laura Ximena |publisher=Institute for Sustainable Development and International Relations |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071225042425/http://www.iddri.org/Publications/Collections/Analyses/Why-are-we-seeing-REDD |archivedate=25 December 2007 |accessdate=14 November 2016 |df=dmy }}</ref> |
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Rainforests are widely believed by laymen to contribute a significant amount of the world's oxygen,<ref name="timesonline.co.uk">{{Cite news|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/article664544.ece|title=How can you save the rain forest. 8 October 2006. Frank Field|location=London|work=The Times|date=8 October 2006|accessdate=1 April 2010}}</ref> although it is now accepted by scientists that rainforests contribute little net [[oxygen]] to the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] and deforestation has only a minor effect on atmospheric oxygen levels.<ref>Broeker, Wallace S. (2006). [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/21stC/issue-2.1/broecker.htm "Breathing easy: Et tu, O<sub>2</sub>."] Columbia University</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Moran|first1=Emilio F.|title=Deforestation and land use in the Brazilian Amazon|journal=Human Ecology|volume=21|pages=1–21|year=1993|doi=10.1007/BF00890069}}</ref> However, the incineration and burning of forest plants to clear land releases large amounts of CO<sub>2</sub>, which contributes to global warming.<ref name="Fearnidel" /> Scientists also state that tropical deforestation releases 1.5 billion tons of carbon each year into the atmosphere.<ref name="ReferenceC">{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.envsci.2007.01.010|journal=Environmental Science Policy |year=2007|volume= 10|issue= 4|pages=385–394|title=Earth observations for estimating greenhouse gas emissions from deforestation in developing countries|url=http://www.gofc-gold.uni-jena.de/documents/other/EO_for_GHG_emissions.pdf|last1=Defries |first1=Ruth |last2=Achard |first2=Frédéric |last3=Brown |first3=Sandra |last4=Herold |first4=Martin |last5=Murdiyarso |first5=Daniel |last6=Schlamadinger |first6=Bernhard |last7=De Souza |first7=Carlos }}</ref> |
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===Hydrological=== |
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The [[water cycle]] is also affected by deforestation. Trees extract [[groundwater]] through their roots and release it into the atmosphere. When part of a forest is removed, the trees no longer transpire this water, resulting in a much [[dry climate|drier climate]]. Deforestation reduces the content of water in the soil and groundwater as well as atmospheric moisture. The dry soil leads to lower water intake for the trees to extract.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wrm.org.uy/deforestation/UNreport.html|title=Underlying Causes of Deforestation|work= UN Secretary-General’s Report}}</ref> Deforestation reduces soil cohesion, so that [[Soil erosion|erosion]], flooding and [[landslide]]s ensue.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://people.uwec.edu/jolhm/eh2/rogge/index.htm|author=Rogge, Daniel |work=University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire |title=Deforestation and Landslides in Southwestern Washington }}</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/413717.stm China's floods: Is deforestation to blame?] BBC News. 6 August 1999.</ref> |
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Shrinking forest cover lessens the landscape's capacity to intercept, retain and [[Transpiration|transpire]] precipitation. Instead of trapping precipitation, which then percolates to groundwater systems, deforested areas become sources of surface water runoff, which moves much faster than subsurface flows. Forests return most of the water that falls as precipitation to the atmosphere by transpiration. In contrast, when an area is deforested, almost all precipitation is lost as run-off.<ref>Raven, P. H. and Berg, L. R. (2006) ''Environment'', 5th ed, John Wiley & Sons. p. 406. {{ISBN|0471704385}}.</ref> That quicker transport of surface water can translate into [[flash flood]]ing and more localized floods than would occur with the forest cover. Deforestation also contributes to decreased [[evapotranspiration]], which lessens atmospheric moisture which in some cases affects precipitation levels downwind from the deforested area, as water is not recycled to downwind forests, but is lost in runoff and returns directly to the oceans. According to one study, in deforested north and northwest China, the average annual precipitation decreased by one third between the 1950s and the 1980s.<ref>{{Cite book|title = The Economic Costs of China's Environmental Degradation: Project on Environmental Scarcities, State Capacity, and Civil Violence, a Joint Project of the University of Toronto and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences|url = http://www.library.utoronto.ca/pcs/state/chinaeco/forest.htm|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20091230071928/http://www.library.utoronto.ca/pcs/state/chinaeco/forest.htm|dead-url = yes|archive-date = 30 December 2009|publisher = Committee on Internat. Security Studies, American Acad. of Arts and Sciences|date = 1 January 1998|first = Wang|last = Hongchang|chapter = Deforestation and Desiccation in China A Preliminary Study|editor-last = Schwartz|editor-first = Jonathan Matthew}}</ref> |
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Trees, and plants in general, affect the [[water cycle]] significantly: |
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*their canopies intercept a proportion of [[precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]], which is then evaporated back to the atmosphere ([[Interception (water)|canopy interception]]); |
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*their litter, stems and trunks slow down [[surface runoff]]; |
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*their roots create [[macropore]]s – large conduits – in the soil that increase [[infiltration (hydrology)|infiltration]] of water; |
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*they contribute to terrestrial evaporation and reduce [[Water content|soil moisture]] via [[transpiration]]; |
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*their [[plant litter|litter]] and other organic residue change soil properties that affect the capacity of soil to store water. |
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*their leaves control the [[humidity]] of the atmosphere by [[transpiration|transpiring]]. 99% of the water absorbed by the roots moves up to the leaves and is transpired.<ref>[http://www.ag.ndsu.edu/pubs/ageng/irrigate/eb66w.htm "Soil, Water and Plant Characteristics Important to Irrigation".] North Dakota State University.</ref> |
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As a result, the presence or absence of trees can change the quantity of water on the surface, in the soil or groundwater, or in the atmosphere. This in turn changes erosion rates and the availability of water for either ecosystem functions or human services. |
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The forest may have little impact on flooding in the case of large rainfall events, which overwhelm the storage capacity of forest soil if the soils are at or close to saturation. |
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[[Tropical rainforest]]s produce about 30% of our planet's [[fresh water]].<ref name="timesonline.co.uk"/> |
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===Soil=== |
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[[File:Hillside deforestation in Rio de Janeiro.jpg|350px|thumb|right|Deforestation for the use of [[clay]] in the [[Deforestation in Brazil|Brazil]]ian city of [[Rio de Janeiro]]. The hill depicted is Morro da Covanca, in [[Jacarepaguá]]]] |
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Undisturbed forests have a very low rate of [[soil]] loss ([[erosion]]), approximately 2 metric [[ton]]s per square kilometer (6 short tons per square mile).{{Citation needed|date=April 2008}} Deforestation generally increases rates of soil loss, by increasing the amount of [[Surface runoff|runoff]] and reducing the protection of the soil from tree litter. This can be an advantage in excessively leached tropical rain forest soils. Forestry operations themselves also increase erosion through the [[road building|development of]] ([[forest road|forest]]) [[road]]s and the use of mechanized equipment. |
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China's [[Loess Plateau]] was cleared of forest millennia ago. Since then it has been eroding, creating dramatic incised valleys, and providing the sediment that gives the Yellow River its yellow color and that causes the flooding of the river in the lower reaches (hence the river's nickname 'China's sorrow'). |
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Removal of trees does not always increase erosion rates. In certain regions of southwest US, shrubs and trees have been encroaching on [[grassland]]. The trees themselves enhance the loss of grass between tree canopies. The bare intercanopy areas become highly erodible. The US Forest Service, in Bandelier National Monument for example, is studying how to restore the former ecosystem, and reduce erosion, by removing the trees. |
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[[Tree root]]s bind soil together, and if the soil is sufficiently shallow they act to keep the soil in place by also binding with underlying [[bedrock]]. Tree removal on steep slopes with shallow soil thus increases the risk of [[landslide]]s, which can threaten people living nearby. |
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===Biodiversity=== |
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Deforestation on a human scale results in decline in [[biodiversity]],<ref>Nilsson, Sten (March 2001). [http://www.actionbioscience.org/environment/nilsson.html Do We Have Enough Forests?], American Institute of Biological Sciences.</ref> and on a natural global scale is known to cause the extinction of many species.<ref name=Benton/>{ The removal or destruction of areas of forest cover has resulted in a degraded environment with reduced [[biodiversity]].<ref name=r1/> Forests support biodiversity, providing habitat for [[wildlife]];<ref>[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/08/070808132022.htm Rainforest Biodiversity Shows Differing Patterns], ScienceDaily, 14 August 2007.</ref> moreover, forests foster [[medicinal plants|medicinal conservation]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bmbf.de/en/12484.php |work=Research for Biodiversity Editorial Office |title=Medicine from the rainforest |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081206015033/http://www.bmbf.de/en/12484.php |archivedate=6 December 2008 }}</ref> With forest biotopes being irreplaceable source of new drugs (such as [[Paclitaxel|taxol]]), deforestation can destroy [[Genetics|genetic]] variations (such as crop resistance) irretrievably.<ref>[http://www.bio-medicine.org/biology-news-1/Single-largest-biodiversity-survey-says-primary-rainforest-is-irreplaceable-1218-1/ Single-largest biodiversity survey says primary rainforest is irreplaceable], Bio-Medicine, 14 November 2007.</ref> |
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[[File:Illegal export of rosewood 001.jpg|thumb|[[Illegal logging in Madagascar]]. In 2009, the vast majority of the illegally obtained [[rosewood]] was exported to [[China]].]] |
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Since the tropical rainforests are the most diverse [[ecosystem]]s on Earth<ref>[http://replay.web.archive.org/20090302154517/http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/geography/ecosystems/ecosystemsrainforestrev1.shtml Tropical rainforests – The tropical rainforest], BBC</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20000302033338/http://library.thinkquest.org/11353/trforest.htm Tropical Rain Forest]. thinkquest.org</ref> and about 80% of the world's known [[biodiversity]] could be found in tropical rainforests,<ref>[http://www.reuters.com/article/2008/06/20/us-philippines-biodiversity-idUSMAN18800220080620 U.N. calls on Asian nations to end deforestation], Reuters, 20 June 2008.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rain-tree.com/facts.htm|title=Rainforest Facts}}</ref> removal or destruction of significant areas of forest cover has resulted in a [[Soil degradation|degraded]]<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/geography/ecosystems/ecosystemsrainforestrev4.shtml Tropical rainforests – Rainforest water and nutrient cycles], BBC</ref> environment with reduced biodiversity.<ref name=Benton/><ref>Butler, Rhett A. (2 July 2007) [http://news.mongabay.com/2007/0702-gardner.html Primary rainforest richer in species than plantations, secondary forests], mongabay.com,</ref> A study in [[Rondônia]], Brazil, has shown that deforestation also removes the microbial community which is involved in the recycling of nutrients, the production of clean water and the removal of pollutants.<ref name=ro>{{cite web |last=Flowers |first=April |title=Deforestation In The Amazon Affects Microbial Life As Well As Ecosystems |url=http://www.redorbit.com/news/science/1112753888/amazon-deforestation-microbial-communities-122512/ |work=Science News |publisher=Redorbit.com|accessdate=12 March 2013}}</ref> |
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It has been estimated that we are losing 137 plant, animal and insect species every single day due to rainforest deforestation, which equates to 50,000 species a year.<ref name="rain-tree.com">[http://www.rain-tree.com/facts.htm Rainforest Facts]. Rain-tree.com (20 March 2010). Retrieved 2010-08-29.</ref> Others state that tropical rainforest deforestation is contributing to the ongoing [[Holocene mass extinction]].<ref>Leakey, Richard and Roger Lewin, 1996, ''The Sixth Extinction : Patterns of Life and the Future of Humankind'', Anchor, {{ISBN|0-385-46809-1}}.</ref><ref>[http://www.independent.co.uk/environment/the-great-rainforest-tragedy-542135.html The great rainforest tragedy], The Independent, 28 June 2003.</ref> The known extinction rates from deforestation rates are very low, approximately 1 species per year from mammals and birds which extrapolates to approximately 23,000 species per year for all species. Predictions have been made that more than 40% of the animal and [[Flora|plant species]] in [[Southeast Asia]] could be wiped out in the 21st century.<ref>[http://www.newscientist.com/channel/life/endangered-species/dn3973 Biodiversity wipeout facing South East Asia], New Scientist, 23 July 2003.</ref> Such predictions were called into question by 1995 data that show that within regions of Southeast Asia much of the original forest has been converted to monospecific plantations, but that potentially endangered species are few and tree flora remains widespread and stable.<ref name="ReferenceB" /> |
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Scientific understanding of the process of extinction is insufficient to accurately make predictions about the impact of deforestation on biodiversity.<ref>{{cite journal |year = 1995|title = The future of biodiversity|journal = Science|volume = 269|issue = 5222| pages = 347–341|doi = 10.1126/science.269.5222.347|pmid=17841251|author1 = Pimm|first1 = S. L.|last2 = Russell|first2 = G. J.|last3 = Gittleman|first3 = J. L.|last4 = Brooks|first4 = T. M.|bibcode = 1995Sci...269..347P}}</ref> Most predictions of forestry related biodiversity loss are based on species-area models, with an underlying assumption that as the forest declines species diversity will decline similarly.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite book|author1=Whitmore, Timothy Charles |author2=Sayer, Jeffrey |author3=International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. General Assembly|author4=IUCN Forest Conservation Programme|title=Tropical deforestation and species extinction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Et4opq8dn4MC|accessdate=4 December 2011|date=15 February 1992|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-0-412-45520-9}}</ref> However, many such models have been proven to be wrong and loss of habitat does not necessarily lead to large scale loss of species.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> Species-area models are known to overpredict the number of species known to be threatened in areas where actual deforestation is ongoing, and greatly overpredict the number of threatened species that are widespread.<ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite journal|doi=10.1126/science.269.5222.347|title=The Future of Biodiversity|year=1995|last1=Pimm|first1=S. L.|last2=Russell|first2=G. J.|last3=Gittleman|first3=J. L.|last4=Brooks|first4=T. M.|journal=Science|volume=269|issue=5222|pages=347–350|pmid=17841251|bibcode=1995Sci...269..347P}}</ref> |
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A recent study of the Brazilian Amazon predicts that despite a lack of extinctions thus far, up to 90 percent of predicted extinctions will finally occur in the next 40 years.<ref>{{cite web|last=Sohn|first=Emily|title=More extinctions expected in Amazon|work=Discovery|url=http://news.discovery.com/earth/amazon-extinctions-to-come-120712.html|date=12 July 2012}}</ref> |
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==Economic impact== |
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Damage to forests and other aspects of nature could halve [[living standard]]s for the world's [[Poverty|poor]] and reduce global [[GDP]] by about 7% by 2050, a report concluded at the [[Convention on Biological Diversity]] (CBD) meeting in Bonn in 2008.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7424535.stm Nature loss 'to hurt global poor'], BBC News, 29 May 2008.</ref> Historically, utilization of forest products, including timber and fuel wood, has played a key role in human societies, comparable to the roles of water and cultivable land. Today, developed countries continue to utilize timber for building houses, and wood pulp for [[paper]]. In developing countries almost three billion people rely on wood for heating and cooking.<ref>[http://atlas.aaas.org/pdf/63-66.pdf Forest Products]. (PDF). Retrieved 4 December 2011.</ref> |
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The forest products industry is a large part of the economy in both developed and developing countries. Short-term economic gains made by conversion of forest to agriculture, or [[over-exploitation]] of wood products, typically leads to loss of long-term income and long-term biological productivity. [[West Africa]], [[Madagascar]], [[Southeast Asia]] and many other regions have experienced lower revenue because of declining timber harvests. Illegal logging causes billions of dollars of losses to national economies annually.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://rainforests.mongabay.com/0905.htm|work=rainforests.mongabay.com|title=Destruction of Renewable Resources}}</ref> |
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The new procedures to get amounts of wood are causing more harm to the economy and overpower the amount of money spent by people employed in logging.<ref>[http://www.cgiar.org/Newsroom/releases/news.asp?idnews=663 Deforestation Across the World's Tropical Forests Emits Large Amounts of Greenhouse Gases with Little Economic Benefits, According to a New Study at CGIAR.org], 4 December 2007.</ref> According to a study, "in most areas studied, the various ventures that prompted deforestation rarely generated more than US$5 for every ton of carbon they released and frequently returned far less than US$1". The price on the European market for an offset tied to a one-ton reduction in carbon is 23 [[euro]] (about US$35).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asb.cgiar.org/News/default.asp?a=%7B580BF3A6-9A50-4162-B059-80CF00046F24%7D|title=New ASB Report finds deforestation offers very little money compared to potential financial benefits |work=asb.cgiar.org}}</ref> |
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Rapidly growing economies also have an effect on deforestation. Most pressure will come from the world's developing countries, which have the fastest-growing populations and most rapid economic (industrial) growth.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite journal|author1=Chomitz, Kenneth |author2=Gray, David A. |title=Roads, lands, markets, and deforestation : a spatial model of land use in Belize|doi=10.1596/1813-9450-1444|year=1999|series=Policy Research Working Papers }}</ref> In 1995, economic growth in developing countries reached nearly 6%, compared with the 2% growth rate for developed countries.”<ref name="autogenerated1"/> As our human population grows, new homes, communities, and expansions of cities will occur. Connecting all of the new expansions will be roads, a very important part in our daily life. Rural roads promote economic development but also facilitate deforestation.<ref name="autogenerated1"/> About 90% of the deforestation has occurred within 100 km of roads in most parts of the Amazon.<ref name="autogenerated2">{{cite journal|title=Using indicators of deforestation and land-use dynamics to support conservation strategies: A case study of central Rondônia, Brazil|doi=10.1016/j.foreco.2009.01.013|year=2009|last1=Ferraz|first1=Silvio Frosini de Barros|last2=Vettorazzi|first2=Carlos Alberto|last3=Theobald|first3=David M.|journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=257|issue=7|pages=1586–1595}}</ref> |
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The [[European Union]] is one of the largest importer of products made from illegal deforestation.<ref>{{cite journal |date=17 March 2015 |title=Stolen Goods: The EU’s complicity in illegal tropical deforestation|url= http://www.fern.org/sites/fern.org/files/Stolen%20Goods_EN.pdf |journal=[[Forests and the European Union Resource Network]]|publisher= |volume= |issue= |pages= |doi= |accessdate=31 March 2015}}</ref> |
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==Forest transition theory== |
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[[File:forest transition theory.jpg|thumb|The forest transition and historical baselines.<ref>{{cite web|title=Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD): An Options Assessment Report|url = http://www.redd-oar.org/links/REDD-OAR_en.pdf|page=16 |date =28 March 2010|publisher = The Government of Norway}}</ref>]] |
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The forest area change may follow a pattern suggested by the [[forest transition]] (FT) theory,<ref name="MeyfroidtLambin2011">{{cite journal|doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-090710-143732|title=Global Forest Transition: Prospects for an End to Deforestation|journal=Annual Review of Environment and Resources|volume=36|pages=343|year=2011|last1=Meyfroidt|first1=Patrick|last2=Lambin|first2=Eric F.}}</ref> whereby at early stages in its development a country is characterized by high forest cover and low deforestation rates (HFLD countries).<ref name=rud/> |
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Then deforestation rates accelerate (HFHD, high forest cover – high deforestation rate), and forest cover is reduced (LFHD, low forest cover – high deforestation rate), before the deforestation rate slows (LFLD, low forest cover – low deforestation rate), after which forest cover stabilizes and eventually starts recovering. FT is not a “law of nature,” and the pattern is influenced by national context (for example, human population density, stage of development, structure of the economy), global economic forces, and government policies. A country may reach very low levels of forest cover before it stabilizes, or it might through good policies be able to “bridge” the forest transition. |
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FT depicts a broad trend, and an extrapolation of historical rates therefore tends to underestimate future BAU deforestation for counties at the early stages in the transition (HFLD), while it tends to overestimate BAU deforestation for countries at the later stages (LFHD and LFLD). |
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Countries with high forest cover can be expected to be at early stages of the FT. GDP per capita captures the stage in a country’s economic development, which is linked to the pattern of natural resource use, including forests. The choice of forest cover and GDP per capita also fits well with the two key scenarios in the FT: |
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(i) a forest scarcity path, where forest scarcity triggers forces (for example, higher prices of forest products) that lead to forest cover stabilization; and |
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(ii) an economic development path, where new and better off-farm employment opportunities associated with economic growth (= increasing GDP per capita) reduce profitability of frontier agriculture and slows deforestation.<ref name=rud/> |
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==Historical causes== |
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{{Further information|Timeline of environmental history}} |
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===Prehistory=== |
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The [[Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse]]<ref name=Benton/> was an event that occurred 300 million years ago. Climate change devastated tropical rainforests causing the extinction of many plant and animal species. The change was abrupt, specifically, at this time climate became cooler and drier, conditions that are not favourable to the growth of rainforests and much of the biodiversity within them. Rainforests were fragmented forming shrinking 'islands' further and further apart. This sudden collapse affected several large groups, effects on amphibians were particularly devastating, while reptiles fared better, being ecologically adapted to the drier conditions that followed. |
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[[File:Néolithique 0001.jpg|thumb|An array of Neolithic artifacts, including bracelets, axe heads, chisels, and polishing tools.]] |
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Rainforests once covered 14% of the earth's land surface; now they cover a mere 6% and experts estimate that the last remaining rainforests could be consumed in less than 40 years.<ref>{{cite book |last= Taylor |first= Leslie |title= The Healing Power of Rainforest Herbs: A Guide to Understanding and Using Herbal Medicinals |publisher= Square One |year= 2004 |isbn= 9780757001444}}</ref> |
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Small scale deforestation was practiced by some societies for tens of thousands of years before the beginnings of civilization.<ref name=FutureEaters>{{Cite book|last=Flannery|first=T|year=1994 |title=The future eaters |publisher=Reed Books |place=Melbourne|isbn=0-7301-0422-2}}</ref> The first evidence of deforestation appears in the [[Mesolithic period]].<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1111/1468-0092.00030|last1=Brown|first1=Tony |title=Clearances and Clearings: Deforestation in Mesolithic/Neolithic Britain|journal=Oxford Journal of Archaeology|volume=16|pages=133–146|year=1997|issue=2}}</ref> It was probably used to convert closed forests into more open ecosystems favourable to game animals.<ref name=FutureEaters/> With the advent of agriculture, larger areas began to be deforested, and fire became the prime tool to clear land for crops. In Europe there is little solid evidence before 7000 BC. Mesolithic [[hunter-gatherer|foragers]] used fire to create openings for [[red deer]] and [[wild boar]]. In Great Britain, shade-tolerant species such as [[oak]] and [[Ash tree|ash]] are replaced in the [[palynology|pollen record]] by [[hazel]]s, brambles, grasses and nettles. Removal of the forests led to decreased [[transpiration]], resulting in the formation of upland [[peat bog]]s. Widespread decrease in [[elm]] [[pollen]] across Europe between 8400–8300 BC and 7200–7000 BC, starting in southern Europe and gradually moving north to Great Britain, may represent land clearing by fire at the onset of [[Neolithic]] agriculture. |
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The [[Neolithic period]] saw extensive deforestation for [[Agriculture|farming land]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/254115/hand-tool/39205/Neolithic-tools|title=hand tool: Neolithic tools|work=Encyclopædia Britannica Online}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.archaeolink.co.uk/Neolithic-Age.html|title=Neolithic Age from 4,000 BC to 2,200 BC or New Stone Age}}</ref> Stone axes were being made from about 3000 BC not just from flint, but from a wide variety of hard rocks from across Britain and North America as well. They include the noted [[Langdale axe industry]] in the [[English Lake District]], quarries developed at [[Penmaenmawr]] in [[North Wales]] and numerous other locations. Rough-outs were made locally near the quarries, and some were polished locally to give a fine finish. This step not only increased the [[mechanical strength]] of the axe, but also made penetration of wood easier. [[Flint]] was still used from sources such as [[Grimes Graves]] but from many other mines across Europe. |
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Evidence of deforestation has been found in [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]] [[Crete]]; for example the environs of the [[Palace of Knossos]] were severely deforested in the [[Bronze Age]].<ref>Hogan, C. Michael (22 December 2007). [http://www.themodernantiquarian.com/site/10854/knossos.html#fieldnotes "Knossos fieldnotes"], ''The Modern Antiquarian''</ref> |
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===Pre-industrial history=== |
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[[File:Rano Raraku quarry.jpg|thumb|Easter Island, deforested. According to [[Jared Diamond]]: "Among past societies faced with the prospect of ruinous deforestation, Easter Island and Mangareva chiefs succumbed to their immediate concerns, but Tokugawa shoguns, Inca emperors, New Guinea highlanders, and 16th century German landowners adopted a long view and reafforested."<ref>Diamond, Jared (2005) "The world as a polder: what does it all mean to us today?" pp. 522–523 in ''[[Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Survive]]'', Penguin Books. {{ISBN|978-0-241-95868-1}}.</ref>]] |
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Throughout prehistory, humans were hunter gatherers who hunted within forests. In most areas, such as the [[Amazon rainforest|Amazon]], the tropics, Central America, and the Caribbean,<ref>[http://www.school.eb.com/comptons/article-9310969?query=deforestation&ct= Encyclopćdia Britannica Online School Edition]. School.eb.com. Retrieved 29 August 2010.</ref> only after shortages of wood and other forest products occur are policies implemented to ensure forest resources are used in a sustainable manner. |
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In [[ancient Greece]], Tjeered van Andel and co-writers<ref>{{cite journal |title=Land Use and Soil Erosion in Prehistoric and Historical Greece|journal=Journal of Field Archaeology|volume=17 |issue=4 |pages= 379–396|url=http://www.esf.edu/cue/documents/vanAndel-etal_LandUse-HistoricGreece_1990.pdf|doi=10.1179/009346990791548628|year=2013 |last1=Van Andel|first1=Tjeerd H.|last2=Zangger|first2=Eberhard|last3=Demitrack|first3=Anne}}</ref> summarized three regional studies of historic erosion and alluviation and found that, wherever adequate evidence exists, a major phase of erosion follows, by about 500-1,000 years the introduction of farming in the various regions of Greece, ranging from the later Neolithic to the Early Bronze Age. The thousand years following the mid-first millennium BC saw serious, intermittent pulses of soil erosion in numerous places. The historic [[silting]] of ports along the southern coasts of [[Asia Minor]] (''e.g.'' [[Clarus]], and the examples of [[Ephesus]], [[Priene]] and [[Miletus]], where harbors had to be abandoned because of the silt deposited by the Meander) and in coastal [[Syria]] during the last centuries BC. |
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[[Easter Island]] has suffered from heavy [[soil erosion]] in recent centuries, aggravated by agriculture and deforestation.<ref>[http://www.smithsonianmag.com/people-places/The_Mystery_of_Easter_Island.html "The Mystery of Easter Island"], ''Smithsonian Magazine'', 1 April 2007.</ref> [[Jared Diamond]] gives an extensive look into the collapse of the ancient Easter Islanders in his book ''[[Collapse (book)|Collapse]]''. The disappearance of the island's trees seems to coincide with a decline of its civilization around the 17th and 18th century. He attributed the collapse to deforestation and over-exploitation of all resources.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mongabay.com/09easter_island.htm|title=Historical Consequences of Deforestation: Easter Island (Diamond 1995)|publisher=mongabay.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/24/042.html|title=Jared Diamond, Easter Island's End|publisher=hartford-hwp.com}}</ref> |
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The famous silting up of the harbor for [[Bruges]], which moved port commerce to [[Antwerp]], also followed a period of increased settlement growth (and apparently of deforestation) in the upper river basins. In early medieval [[Riez]] in upper [[Provence]], alluvial silt from two small rivers raised the riverbeds and widened the floodplain, which slowly buried the Roman settlement in alluvium and gradually moved new construction to higher ground; concurrently the headwater valleys above Riez were being opened to pasturage.{{Citation needed|date=November 2008}} |
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A typical [[progress trap]] was that cities were often built in a forested area, which would provide wood for some industry (for example, construction, shipbuilding, pottery). When deforestation occurs without proper replanting, however; local wood supplies become difficult to obtain near enough to remain competitive, leading to the city's abandonment, as happened repeatedly in Ancient [[Asia Minor]]. Because of fuel needs, mining and metallurgy often led to deforestation and city abandonment.<ref>{{Cite book|title=World Ecological Degradation|last=Chew|first=Sing C.|publisher=AltaMira Press|year=2001|isbn=|location=Oxford, England|pages=69–70|via=}}</ref> |
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With most of the population remaining active in (or indirectly dependent on) the agricultural sector, the main pressure in most areas remained land clearing for crop and cattle farming. Enough wild green was usually left standing (and partially used, for example, to collect firewood, timber and fruits, or to graze pigs) for wildlife to remain viable. The elite's (nobility and higher clergy) protection of their own hunting privileges and game often protected significant woodlands.{{Citation needed|date=November 2008}} |
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Major parts in the spread (and thus more durable growth) of the population were played by monastical 'pioneering' (especially by the [[Benedictine]] and [[commerce|Commercial]] orders) and some [[feudal]] lords' recruiting farmers to settle (and become tax payers) by offering relatively good legal and fiscal conditions. Even when speculators sought to encourage towns, settlers needed an agricultural belt around or sometimes within defensive walls. When populations were quickly decreased by causes such as the [[Black Death]] or devastating warfare (for example, [[Genghis Khan]]'s [[Mongol]] hordes in eastern and central Europe, [[Thirty Years' War]] in Germany), this could lead to settlements being abandoned. The land was reclaimed by nature, but the [[secondary forest]]s usually lacked the original [[biodiversity]]. |
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[[File:Rugendas - Defrichement d une Foret.jpg|thumb|Deforestation of Brazil's [[Atlantic Forest]] c.1820–1825]] |
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From 1100 to 1500 AD, significant deforestation took place in [[Western Europe]] as a result of the [[Human overpopulation|expanding human population]]. The large-scale building of wooden sailing ships by European (coastal) naval owners since the 15th century for exploration, [[Colonialism|colonisation]], [[slave trade]]–and other trade on the high seas consumed many forest resources. [[Piracy]] also contributed to the over harvesting of forests, as in Spain. This led to a weakening of the domestic economy after Columbus' discovery of America, as the economy became dependent on colonial activities (plundering, mining, cattle, plantations, trade, etc.){{Citation needed|date=December 2009}} |
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In ''Changes in the Land'' (1983), [[William Cronon]] analyzed and documented 17th-century English colonists' reports of increased seasonal flooding in [[New England]] during the period when new settlers initially cleared the forests for agriculture. They believed flooding was linked to widespread forest clearing upstream. |
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The massive use of [[charcoal]] on an industrial scale in [[Early Modern Europe]] was a new type of consumption of western forests; even in Stuart England, the relatively primitive production of charcoal has already reached an impressive level. Stuart England was so widely deforested that it depended on the [[Baltic region|Baltic]] trade for ship timbers, and looked to the untapped forests of [[New England]] to supply the need. Each of Nelson's [[Royal Navy]] war ships at Trafalgar (1805) required 6,000 mature oaks for its construction. In France, [[Jean-Baptiste Colbert|Colbert]] planted [[oak]] forests to supply the French navy in the future. When the oak plantations matured in the mid-19th century, the masts were no longer required because shipping had changed. |
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[[Norman F. Cantor]]'s summary of the effects of late medieval deforestation applies equally well to Early Modern Europe:<ref>{{cite book|author=Cantor, Norman F. |title=The civilization of the Middle Ages: a completely revised and expanded edition of Medieval history, the life and death of a civilization|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0qiYM2_HhJgC|accessdate=4 December 2011|date=9 June 1994|publisher=HarperCollins|isbn=978-0-06-092553-6|page=564}}</ref> |
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{{Quote|Europeans had lived in the midst of vast forests throughout the earlier medieval centuries. After 1250 they became so skilled at deforestation that by 1500 they were running short of wood for heating and cooking. They were faced with a nutritional decline because of the elimination of the generous supply of wild game that had inhabited the now-disappearing forests, which throughout medieval times had provided the staple of their carnivorous high-protein diet. By 1500 Europe was on the edge of a fuel and nutritional disaster [from] which it was saved in the sixteenth century only by the burning of soft coal and the cultivation of potatoes and maize.}} |
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==Industrial era== |
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In the 19th century, introduction of [[steamboat]]s in the United States was the cause of deforestation of banks of major rivers, such as the [[Mississippi River]], with increased and more severe flooding one of the environmental results. The steamboat crews cut wood every day from the riverbanks to fuel the steam engines. Between [[St. Louis]] and the confluence with the [[Ohio River]] to the south, the Mississippi became more wide and shallow, and changed its channel laterally. Attempts to improve navigation by the use of [[Snagboat|snag pullers]] often resulted in crews' clearing large trees 100 to {{convert|200|ft|m}} back from the banks. Several French colonial towns of the [[Illinois Country]], such as [[Kaskaskia, Illinois|Kaskaskia]], [[Cahokia, Illinois|Cahokia]] and St. Philippe, [[Illinois]] were flooded and abandoned in the late 19th century, with a loss to the cultural record of their [[archeology]].<ref>Norris, F. Terry (1997) [https://books.google.com/books?id=HwH3kdOgvfAC&pg=PA73 "Where Did the Villages Go? Steamboats, Deforestation, and Archaeological Loss in the Mississippi Valley"], in ''Common Fields: an environmental history of St. Louis'', Andrew Hurley, ed., St. Louis, MO: Missouri Historical Society Press, pp. 73–89. {{ISBN|978-1-883982-15-7}}.</ref> |
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The wholescale clearance of woodland to create agricultural land can be seen in many parts of the world, such as the [[Central forest-grasslands transition]] and other areas of the [[Great Plains]] of the [[United States]]. Specific parallels are seen in the 20th-century deforestation occurring in many developing nations. |
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===Rates of deforestation=== |
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[[File:Fires and Deforestation on the Amazon Frontier, Rondonia, Brazil - August 12, 2007.jpg|thumb|[[Slash-and-burn]] farming in the state of Rondônia, western Brazil]] |
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Global deforestation<ref>Duke Press policy studies / Global deforestation and the nineteenth-century world economy / edited by Richard P. Tucker and J. F. Richards</ref> sharply accelerated around 1852.<ref name=Wilson>[[E. O. Wilson]], 2002, ''The Future of Life'', Vintage {{ISBN|0-679-76811-4}}.</ref><ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2008/jul/01/forests.conservation Map reveals extent of deforestation in tropical countries], guardian.co.uk, 1 July 2008.</ref> It has been estimated that about half of the Earth's mature [[tropical forest]]s—between 7.5 million and 8 million km<sup>2</sup> (2.9 million to 3 million sq mi) of the original 15 million to 16 million km<sup>2</sup> (5.8 million to 6.2 million sq mi) that until 1947 covered the planet<ref name=worldbook>Maycock, Paul F. ''[http://www.worldbookonline.com/wb/article?id=ar704660 Deforestation]''. WorldBookOnline.</ref>—have now been destroyed.<ref name="Rainforest Facts"/><ref name=Nielsen>Ron Nielsen, ''The Little Green Handbook: Seven Trends Shaping the Future of Our Planet'', Picador, New York (2006) {{ISBN|978-0-312-42581-4}}.</ref> Some scientists have predicted that unless significant measures (such as seeking out and protecting old growth forests that have not been disturbed)<ref name=worldbook /> are taken on a worldwide basis, by 2030 there will only be 10% remaining,<ref name=Wilson/><ref name=Nielsen/> with another 10% [[degraded forest|in a degraded condition]].<ref name=Wilson/> 80% will have been lost, and with them hundreds of thousands of irreplaceable species.<ref name=Wilson/> Some cartographers have attempted to illustrate the sheer scale of deforestation by country using a [[cartogram]].<ref>[http://atlas.caladan.com/?page_id=58 Victor Vescovo. (2006). The Atlas of World Statistics. The Caladan Press.] Retrieved 3 August 2012.</ref> |
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Estimates vary widely as to the extent of tropical deforestation.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Tropical Rainforests and Agroforests Under Global Change|editors=Teja Tscharntke, Christoph Leuschner, Edzo Veldkamp, Heiko Faust, Edi Guhardja|publisher=Springer|year=2010|isbn=978-3-642-00492-6|pages=270–271| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f-LfXBOL_7sC&pg=PA270}}</ref><ref>Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2000). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=9b91zn_txQgC&printsec=frontcover&cad=0#PPP1,M1 Land Use, Land Use Change and Forestry.]'' Cambridge University Press. {{Page needed|date=May 2009}}</ref> Scientists estimate that one fifth of the world's tropical rainforest was destroyed between 1960 and 1990.{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}} They claim that that rainforests {{roundup|{{age|1960|1|1}}|-1}} years ago covered 14%{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}} of the world's land surface, now only cover 5–7%, and that all tropical forests will be gone by the middle of the 21st century.<ref name="envsci-encyc-104">{{Cite book|title=Encyclopedia of environmental science|author1=Mongillo, John F. |author2=Zierdt-Warshaw, Linda |editor=Zierdt-Warshaw, Linda |publisher=University of Rochester Press|year=2000|isbn=978-1-57356-147-1|page=104| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ozAN5vLbssgC&pg=PA104}}</ref> |
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A 2002 analysis of satellite imagery suggested that the rate of deforestation in the humid tropics (approximately 5.8 million hectares per year) was roughly 23% lower than the most commonly quoted rates.<ref>{{cite journal|year = 2002|title = Determination of deforestation rates of the world's humid tropical forests|journal = Science|volume = 297|issue = 5583| pages = 999–1003|pmid = 12169731|doi = 10.1126/science.1070656 |author1 = Achard|first1 = F|last2 = Eva|first2 = H. D.|last3 = Stibig|first3 = H. J.|last4 = Mayaux|first4 = P|last5 = Gallego|first5 = J|last6 = Richards|first6 = T|last7 = Malingreau|first7 = J. P.|bibcode = 2002Sci...297..999A}}</ref> Conversely, a newer analysis of satellite images reveals that [[deforestation of the Amazon rainforest]] is twice as fast as scientists previously estimated.<ref>{{cite news |last=Jha |first=Alok |date=21 October 2005 |title=Amazon rainforest vanishing at twice rate of previous estimates |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2005/oct/21/brazil.conservationandendangeredspecies |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |location= |accessdate= }}</ref><ref>[http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/1021/p04s01-sten.html Satellite images reveal Amazon forest shrinking faster], csmonitor.com, 21 October 2005.</ref> |
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Some have argued that deforestation trends may follow a [[Environmental Kuznets Curve|Kuznets curve]],<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.aseanenvironment.info/Abstract/41014849.pdf |title=Deforestation and the environmental Kuznets curve: An institutional perspective |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2006.03.014|year=2007|last1=Culas|first1=Richard J.|journal=Ecological Economics|volume=61|issue=2–3|pages=429–437 }}</ref> which if true would nonetheless fail to eliminate the risk of irreversible loss of non-economic forest values (for example, the extinction of species).<ref>Whitehead, John (22 November 2006) [http://www.env-econ.net/2006/11/a_deforestation.html Environmental Economics: A deforestation Kuznets curve?], env-econ.net .</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/S0304-3878(98)00110-2|title=Is there an environmental Kuznets curve for deforestation?|journal=Journal of Development Economics|volume=58|pages=231|author= Koop, Gary and Tole, Lise|year=1999}}</ref> |
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[[File:Haiti deforestation.jpg|thumb|Satellite image of [[Haiti]]'s border with the [[Dominican Republic]] (right) shows the amount of [[deforestation in Haiti|deforestation on the Haitian side]]]] |
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A 2005 report by the United Nations [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] (FAO) estimated that although the Earth's total forest area continued to decrease at about 13 million hectares per year, the global rate of deforestation has recently been slowing.<ref name=pantropical>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/004/y1997e/y1997e1f.htm|title=Pan-tropical Survey of Forest Cover Changes 1980–2000|work=Forest Resources Assessment|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)|location=Rome, Italy}}</ref><ref>[http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/MEETING/003/X9591E.HTM Committee On Forestry]. FAO (16 March 2001). Retrieved 2010-08-29.</ref> The 2016 report by the FAO<ref>FAO. 2016. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2015. How are the world’s forests changing?</ref> reports from 2010 to 2015 there was a worldwide decrease in forest area of 3.3 million ha per year. During this five-year period, the biggest forest area loss occurred in the tropics, particularly in South America and Africa. Per capita forest area decline was also greatest in the tropics and subtropics but is occurring in every climatic domain (except in the temperate) as populations increase. |
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Others claim that rainforests are being destroyed at an ever-quickening pace.<ref>[http://www.worldwatch.org/node/4521 Worldwatch: Wood Production and Deforestation Increase & Recent Content], [[Worldwatch Institute]]</ref> The London-based [[Rainforest Foundation]] notes that "the UN figure is based on a definition of forest as being an area with as little as 10% actual tree cover, which would therefore include areas that are actually savannah-like ecosystems and badly damaged forests."<ref name="Butler">{{cite web|url=http://news.mongabay.com/2005/1115-forests.html|title=World deforestation rates and forest cover statistics, 2000–2005|author=Butler, Rhett A. |work= mongabay.com|date=16 November 2005}}</ref> Other critics of the FAO data point out that they do not distinguish between forest types,<ref>The fear is that highly diverse habitats, such as tropical rainforest, are vanishing at a faster rate that is partly masked by the slower deforestation of less biodiverse, dry, open forests. Because of this omission, the most harmful impacts of deforestation (such as habitat loss) could be increasing despite a possible decline in the global rate of deforestation.</ref> and that they are based largely on reporting from forestry departments of individual countries,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.mongabay.com/2008/0629-deforestation.html|title=Remote sensing versus self-reporting}}</ref> which do not take into account unofficial activities like illegal logging.<ref>The World Bank estimates that 80% of logging operations are illegal in [[Bolivia]] and 42% in [[Colombia]], while in [[Peru]], illegal logging accounts for 80% of all logging activities. (World Bank (2004). ''Forest Law Enforcement''.) (The Peruvian Environmental Law Society (2003). ''Case Study on the Development and Implementation of Guidelines for the Control of Illegal Logging with a View to Sustainable Forest Management in Peru''.)</ref> |
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Despite these uncertainties, there is agreement that destruction of rainforests remains a significant environmental problem. Up to 90% of [[West Africa]]'s coastal rainforests have disappeared since 1900.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nationalgeographic.com/eye/deforestation/effect.html|title=Forest Holocaust|work=National Geographic}}</ref> |
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In [[South Asia]], about 88% of the rainforests have been lost.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.csupomona.edu/~admckettrick/projects/ag101_project/html/size.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120930064512/http://www.csupomona.edu/~admckettrick/projects/ag101_project/html/size.html|dead-url=yes|archive-date=2012-09-30|title=THE SIZE OF THE RAINFORESTS|publisher=csupomona.edu}}</ref> Much of what remains of the world's rainforests is in the [[Amazon basin]], where the [[Amazon Rainforest]] covers approximately 4 million square kilometres.<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A925913 The Amazon Rainforest], BBC, 14 February 2003.</ref> The regions with the highest tropical deforestation rate between 2000 and 2005 were [[Central America]]—which lost 1.3% of its forests each year—and tropical Asia.<ref name=Butler/> In [[Central America]], two-thirds of lowland tropical forests have been turned into pasture since 1950 and 40% of all the rainforests have been lost in the last 40 years.<ref name="ru.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.ru.org/ecology-and-environment/the-causes-of-tropical-deforestation.html|title=The Causes of Tropical Deforestation|work=New Renaissance Magazine|author=Revington, John }}</ref> [[Brazil]] has lost 90–95% of its [[Mata Atlântica]] forest.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://kids.mongabay.com/lesson_plans/lisa_algee/deforestation.html|title=What is Deforestation?|work=kids.mongabay.com}}</ref> |
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[[Paraguay]] was losing its natural semi humid forests in the country’s western regions at a rate of 15.000 hectares at a randomly studied 2-month period in 2010,<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.abc.com.py/nota/103480-Paraguay-es-principal-deforestador-del-Chaco |title= Paraguay es principal deforestador del Chaco|work=ABC Color newspaper, Paraguay|accessdate=13 August 2011}}</ref> Paraguay’s parliament refused in 2009 to pass a law that would have stopped cutting of natural forests altogether.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ventacamposparaguay.com/farmland.html|title=Paraguay farmland|accessdate=13 August 2011}}</ref> |
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[[File:Deforestation around Pakke Tiger Reserve, India.JPG|thumb|200px|Deforestation around Pakke Tiger Reserve, India]] |
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[[Madagascar]] has lost 90% of its eastern rainforests.<ref>[http://www.iucn.org/where/global/index.cfm?uNewsID=87 IUCN – Three new sites inscribed on World Heritage List], 27 June 2007.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newscientist.com/data/images/archive/1717/17173001.jpg|title=Madagascar's rainforest map|work=New Scientist}}</ref> As of 2007, [[Deforestation in Haiti|less than 50% of Haiti's forests remained]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.envirosociety.org/2016/05/haiti-is-covered-with-trees/|website=EnviroSociety|publisher=Tarter, Andrew |title=Haiti Is Covered with Trees |deadurl=no |accessdate=14 November 2016}}</ref> [[Mexico]], [[India]], the [[Philippines]], [[Deforestation in Indonesia|Indonesia]], [[Thailand]], [[Burma]], [[Deforestation in Malaysia|Malaysia]], [[Bangladesh]], China, [[Deforestation in Sri Lanka|Sri Lanka]], [[Laos]], [[Nigeria]], the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Liberia]], [[Guinea]], [[Ghana]] and the [[Ivory Coast]], have lost large areas of their rainforest.<ref>[http://www.mongabay.com/deforestation_rate_tables.htm Chart – Tropical Deforestation by Country & Region]. Mongabay.com. Retrieved 4 December 2011.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090205200836/http://rainforestweb.org/Rainforest_Destruction/ Rainforest Destruction]. rainforestweb.org</ref> Several countries, notably [[Deforestation in Brazil|Brazil]], have declared their deforestation a national emergency.<ref>[http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/environment/2008-01-24-brazil-amazon_N.htm Amazon deforestation rises sharply in 2007], USATODAY.com, 24 January 2008.</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/brazil/story/0,,1488468,00.html|title=Rainforest loss shocks Brazil|work=The Guardian|location=London|first=John|last=Vidal|date=31 May 2005|accessdate=1 April 2010}}</ref> The [[World Wildlife Fund]]'s [[ecoregion]] project catalogues habitat types throughout the world, including habitat loss such as deforestation, showing for example that even in the rich forests of parts of [[Canada]] such as the [[Mid-Continental Canadian forests]] of the prairie provinces half of the forest cover has been lost or altered. |
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====Regions==== |
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{{Main article|Deforestation by region}} |
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Rates of deforestation vary around the world. |
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In 2011 [[Conservation International]] listed the top 10 most endangered forests, characterized by having all lost 90% or more of their original [[habitat]], and each harboring at least 1500 [[Endemism|endemic]] plant species (species found nowhere else in the world).<ref name=ci2011/> |
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:{| class="wikitable sortable" border="0" style="background:#ffffff" align="top" |
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|+ style="text-align:center; background:DarkGreen; color:white;"|<big>'''Top 10 Most Endangered Forests 2011</big>''' |
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|- |
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! style="background:LightGreen; color:Black"|Endangered forest |
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! style="background:LightGreen; color:Black"|Region |
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! style="background:LightGreen; color:Black"|Remaining habitat |
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! style="background:LightGreen; color:Black"|Predominate vegetation type |
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! style="background:LightGreen; color:Black"|Notes |
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|- |
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| [[Indo-Burma]] |
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| Asia-Pacific |
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| 5% |
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| [[Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests]] |
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| Rivers, floodplain wetlands, mangrove forests. [[Burma]], [[Thailand]], [[Laos]], [[Vietnam]], [[Deforestation in Cambodia|Cambodia]], [[India]].<ref>[http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/hotspots/indo_burma/Pages/default.aspx Indo-Burma], Conservation International.</ref> |
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|- |
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| [[New Caledonia]] |
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| Asia-Pacific |
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| 5% |
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| Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests |
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| See note for region covered.<ref>[http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/hotspots/new_caledonia/Pages/default.aspx New Caledonia], Conservation International.</ref> |
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|- |
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| [[Sundaland]] |
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| Asia-Pacific |
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| 7% |
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| Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests |
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| Western half of the Indo-Malayan archipelago including southern [[Deforestation in Borneo|Borneo]] and [[Sumatra]].<ref>[http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/hotspots/sundaland/Pages/default.aspx Sundaland], Conservation International.</ref> |
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|- |
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| [[Philippines]] |
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| Asia-Pacific |
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| 7% |
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| Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests |
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| Forests over the entire country including 7,100 islands.<ref>[http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/hotspots/philippines/Pages/default.aspx Philippines], Conservation International.</ref> |
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|- |
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| [[Atlantic Forest]] |
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| South America |
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| 8% |
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| Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests |
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| Forests along [[Brazil]]'s Atlantic coast, extends to parts of [[Paraguay]], [[Argentina]] and [[Uruguay]].<ref>[http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/hotspots/atlantic_forest/Pages/default.aspx Atlantic Forest] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111212005601/http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/hotspots/atlantic_forest/Pages/default.aspx |date=12 December 2011 }}, Conservation International.</ref> |
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|- |
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| Mountains of Southwest China |
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| Asia-Pacific |
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| 8% |
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| [[Temperate coniferous forest]] |
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| See note for region covered.<ref>[http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/hotspots/china/Pages/default.aspx Mountains of Southwest China], Conservation International.</ref> |
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|- |
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| [[California Floristic Province]] |
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| North America |
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| 10% |
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| [[Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests]] |
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| See note for region covered.<ref>[http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/hotspots/california_floristic/Pages/default.aspx California Floristic Province] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110414053932/http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/hotspots/california_floristic/Pages/default.aspx |date=14 April 2011 }}, Conservation International.</ref> |
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|- |
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| [[Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa]] |
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| Africa |
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| 10% |
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| Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests |
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| [[Mozambique]], [[Tanzania]], [[Kenya]], [[Somalia]].<ref>[http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/hotspots/coastal_forests/Pages/default.aspx Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa], Conservation International.</ref> |
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|- |
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| [[Madagascar]] & Indian Ocean Islands |
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| Africa |
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| 10% |
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| Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests |
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| [[Madagascar]], [[Mauritius]], [[Reunion (island)|Reunion]], [[Seychelles]], [[Comoros]].<ref>[http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/hotspots/madagascar/Pages/default.aspx Madagascar & Indian Ocean Islands], Conservation International.</ref> |
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|- |
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| [[Eastern Afromontane]] |
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| Africa |
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| 11% |
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| Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests<br>[[Montane grasslands and shrublands]] |
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| Forests scattered along the eastern edge of Africa, from [[Saudi Arabia]] in the north to [[Zimbabwe]] in the south.<ref>[http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/hotspots/afromontane/Pages/default.aspx Eastern Afromontane], Conservation International.</ref> |
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|} |
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::Table source:<ref name=ci2011>[http://www.conservation.org/newsroom/pressreleases/Pages/The-Worlds-10-Most-Threatened-Forest-Hotspots.aspx The World's 10 Most Threatened Forest Hotspots], Conservation International, 2 February 2011.</ref> |
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==Control== |
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===Reducing emissions=== |
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{{Main article|Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation}} |
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Main international organizations including the United Nations and the World Bank, have begun to develop programs aimed at curbing deforestation. The blanket term [[Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation|Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation]] (REDD) describes these sorts of programs, which use direct monetary or other incentives to encourage developing countries to limit and/or roll back deforestation. Funding has been an issue, but at the [[UN Framework Convention on Climate Change]] (UNFCCC) Conference of the Parties-15 (COP-15) in Copenhagen in December 2009, an accord was reached with a collective commitment by developed countries for new and additional resources, including forestry and investments through international institutions, that will approach USD 30 billion for the period 2010–2012.<ref>{{Cite news|title= Copenhagen Accord of 18 December 2009 |publisher=UNFCC |year= 2009 |url= http://unfccc.int/files/meetings/cop_15/application/pdf/cop15_cph_auv.pdf |accessdate=28 December 2009}}</ref> Significant work is underway on tools for use in monitoring developing country adherence to their agreed REDD targets. These tools, which rely on remote forest monitoring using satellite imagery and other data sources, include the [[Center for Global Development]]'s FORMA (Forest Monitoring for Action) initiative <ref>[http://www.cgdev.org/section/initiatives/_active/forestmonitoringforactionforma Forest Monitoring for Action (FORMA) : Center for Global Development : Initiatives: Active]. Cgdev.org (23 November 2009). Retrieved 2010-08-29.</ref> and the [[Group on Earth Observations]]' Forest Carbon Tracking Portal.<ref>[http://portal.geo-fct.org/(-demonstrators/browser Browser – GEO FCT Portal]. Portal.geo-fct.org. Retrieved 29 August 2010.</ref> Methodological guidance for forest monitoring was also emphasized at COP-15.<ref>{{Cite news|title= Methodological Guidance |publisher=UNFCC |year= 2009 |url= http://unfccc.int/files/na/application/pdf/cop15_ddc_auv.pdf |accessdate= 28 December 2009}}</ref> The environmental organization [[Avoided Deforestation Partners]] leads the campaign for development of REDD through funding from the U.S. government.<ref>[http://climateprogress.org/2009/12/16/sec-vilsack-1-billion-for-redd/ Agriculture Secretary Vilsack: $1 billion for REDD+ « Climate Progress]. Climateprogress.org (16 December 2009). Retrieved 2010-08-29.</ref> In 2014, the [[Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations]] and partners launched Open Foris – a set of open-source software tools that assist countries in gathering, producing and disseminating information on the state of forest resources.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/news/story/en/item/254098/icode/ |title=FAO sets standards to improve national forest monitoring systems}}</ref> The tools support the inventory lifecycle, from needs assessment, design, planning, field data collection and management, estimation analysis, and dissemination. Remote sensing image processing tools are included, as well as tools for international reporting for [[Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation]] (REDD) and MRV{{clarify|date=October 2014}} and FAO's [http://www.fao.org/forestry/fra/en/ Global Forest Resource Assessments]. |
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In evaluating implications of overall emissions reductions, countries of greatest concern are those categorized as High Forest Cover with High Rates of Deforestation (HFHD) and Low Forest Cover with High Rates of Deforestation (LFHD). Afghanistan, Benin, Botswana, Burma, Burundi, Cameroon, Chad, Ecuador, El Salvador, Ethiopia, Ghana, Guatemala, Guinea, [[Deforestation in Haiti|Haiti]], Honduras, Indonesia, Liberia, Malawi, Mali, Mauritania, Mongolia, Namibia, Nepal, Nicaragua, Niger, Nigeria, Pakistan, Paraguay, Philippines, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Togo, Uganda, United Republic of Tanzania, Zimbabwe are listed as having Low Forest Cover with High Rates of Deforestation (LFHD). Brazil, Cambodia, Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea, Equatorial Guinea, Malaysia, Solomon Islands, Timor-Leste, Venezuela, Zambia are listed as High Forest Cover with High Rates of Deforestation (HFHD).<ref>{{cite web|title= Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD): An Options Assessment Report |publisher=Meridian Institute for the Government of Norway |year= 2009 |url= http://www.africaclimatesolution.org/features/REDD-Options_Assessment_Report.pdf|pages=75–77 |accessdate= 24 November 2011 |author=Angelsen, Arild|display-authors=etal}}</ref> |
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====Payments for conserving forests==== |
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In Bolivia, deforestation in upper river basins has caused environmental problems, including soil erosion and declining water quality. An innovative project to try and remedy this situation involves landholders in upstream areas being paid by downstream water users to conserve forests. The landholders receive US$20 to conserve the trees, avoid polluting livestock practices, and enhance the biodiversity and forest carbon on their land. They also receive US$30, which purchases a beehive, to compensate for conservation for two hectares of water-sustaining forest for five years. Honey revenue per hectare of forest is US$5 per year, so within five years, the landholder has sold US$50 of honey.<ref>[http://cdkn.org/2013/12/payments-for-watershed-services-a-driver-of-climate-compatible-development/?loclang=en_gb ''Payments for watershed services: A driver of climate compatible development''], [[Climate & Development Knowledge Network]], 30 December 2013.</ref> The project is being conducted by [[Fundación Natura Bolivia]] and Rare Conservation, with support from the [[Climate & Development Knowledge Network]]. |
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=== Land rights === |
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[[File:Shennongjia virgin forest.jpg|thumb|250px|Transferring [[land rights]] to indigenous inhabitants is argued to efficiently conserve forests.]] |
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Transferring rights over land from public domain to its indigenous inhabitants is argued to be a cost effective strategy to conserve forests.<ref name=Guardian1>{{cite news|url= https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2016/jul/22/india-follow-china-saving-forest-people-land-rights|title=India should follow China to find a way out of the woods on saving forest people|publisher=The Guardian |accessdate=7 August 2016|date=22 July 2016}}</ref> This includes the protection of such rights entitled in existing laws, such as India’s [[The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006|Forest Rights Act]].<ref name=Guardian1/> The transferring of such rights in [[China]], perhaps the largest [[land reform]] in modern times, has been argued to have increased forest cover.<ref name=rightsandresources>{{cite web|url=http://rightsandresources.org/en/publication/view/chinas-forest-tenure-reforms-impacts-and-implications-for-choice-conservation-and-climate-change/|title=China’s forest tenure reforms|publisher=rightsandresources.org |accessdate=7 August 2016}}</ref> In [[Brazil]], forested areas given tenure to indigenous groups have even lower rates of clearing than [[national park]]s.<ref name=rightsandresources/> |
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===Farming=== |
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New methods are being developed to farm more intensively, such as high-yield [[Hybrid (biology)|hybrid]] crops, [[greenhouse]], [[autonomous building]] gardens, and [[hydroponic]]s. These methods are often dependent on chemical inputs to maintain necessary yields. In cyclic [[agriculture]], cattle are grazed on farm land that is resting and rejuvenating. Cyclic agriculture actually increases the fertility of the soil. Intensive farming can also decrease soil nutrients by consuming at an accelerated rate the trace minerals needed for crop growth.{{Citation needed|date=November 2008}}The most promising approach, however, is the concept of [[forest gardening|food forests]] in [[permaculture]], which consists of agroforestal systems carefully designed to mimic natural forests, with an emphasis on plant and animal species of interest for food, timber and other uses. These systems have low dependence on [[fossil fuels]] and [[agro-chemicals]], are highly self-maintaining, highly productive, and with strong positive impact on soil and water quality, and [[biodiversity]]. |
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===Monitoring deforestation=== |
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There are multiple methods that are appropriate and reliable for reducing and monitoring deforestation. One method is the “visual interpretation of aerial photos or satellite imagery that is labor-intensive but does not require high-level training in computer image processing or extensive computational resources”.<ref name="autogenerated2"/> Another method includes hot-spot analysis (that is, locations of rapid change) using expert opinion or coarse resolution satellite data to identify locations for detailed digital analysis with high resolution satellite images.<ref name="autogenerated2"/> Deforestation is typically assessed by quantifying the amount of area deforested, measured at the present time. |
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From an environmental point of view, quantifying the damage and its possible consequences is a more important task, while conservation efforts are more focused on forested land protection and development of land-use alternatives to avoid continued deforestation.<ref name="autogenerated2"/> Deforestation rate and total area deforested, have been widely used for monitoring deforestation in many regions, including the Brazilian Amazon deforestation monitoring by INPE.<ref name="ReferenceC"/> A global satellite view is available.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://earthenginepartners.appspot.com/science-2013-global-forest |title=Global Forest Change – Google Crisis Map|work=Google Crisis Map|accessdate=12 October 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.nature.com/news/warning-to-forest-destroyers-this-scientist-will-catch-you-1.20730 |title=Warning to forest destroyers: this scientist will catch you|work=Nature News & Comment|date=4 October 2016|accessdate=12 October 2016}}</ref> |
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===Forest management=== |
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Efforts to stop or slow deforestation have been attempted for many centuries because it has long been known that deforestation can cause environmental damage sufficient in some cases to cause societies to collapse. In [[Tonga]], paramount rulers developed policies designed to prevent conflicts between short-term gains from converting forest to farmland and long-term problems forest loss would cause,<ref>Diamond, Jared ''Collapse: How Societies Choose To Fail or Succeed''; Viking Press 2004, pp. 301–302 ISBN 0-14-311700-9.</ref> while during the 17th and 18th centuries in [[Tokugawa shogunate|Tokugawa]], Japan,<ref>Diamond, Jared ''Collapse: How Societies Choose To Fail or Succeed''; Viking Press 2004, pp. 320–331 ISBN 0-14-311700-9.</ref> the shoguns developed a highly sophisticated system of long-term planning to stop and even reverse deforestation of the preceding centuries through substituting timber by other products and more efficient use of land that had been farmed for many centuries. In 16th-century Germany, landowners also developed [[silviculture]] to deal with the problem of deforestation. However, these policies tend to be limited to environments with ''good rainfall'', ''no dry season'' and ''very young [[soil]]s'' (through [[volcano|volcanism]] or [[glaciation]]). This is because on older and less fertile soils trees grow too slowly for silviculture to be economic, whilst in areas with a strong dry season there is always a risk of forest fires destroying a tree crop before it matures. |
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In the areas where "[[slash-and-burn]]" is practiced, switching to "[[slash-and-char]]" would prevent the rapid deforestation and subsequent degradation of soils. The [[biochar]] thus created, given back to the soil, is not only a durable [[carbon sequestration]] method, but it also is an extremely beneficial [[Soil conditioner|amendment]] to the soil. Mixed with [[biomass]] it brings the creation of [[terra preta]], one of the richest soils on the planet and the only one known to regenerate itself. |
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====Sustainable practices==== |
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[[File:Bamboo Feb09.jpg|thumb|Bamboo is advocated as a more sustainable alternative for cutting down wood for fuel.<ref name=bamboo/>]] |
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Certification, as provided by global certification systems such as [[Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification]] and [[Forest Stewardship Council]], contributes to tackling deforestation by creating market demand for timber from sustainably managed forests. According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), "A major condition for the adoption of sustainable forest management is a demand for products that are produced sustainably and consumer willingness to pay for the higher costs entailed. Certification represents a shift from regulatory approaches to market incentives to promote sustainable forest management. By promoting the positive attributes of forest products from sustainably managed forests, certification focuses on the demand side of environmental conservation."<ref>[http://www.fao.org/docrep/011/i0350e/i0350e00.HTM "State of the World's Forests 2009"]. United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization.</ref> [[Rettet den Regenwald|Rainforest Rescue]] argues that the standards of organizations like FSC are too closely connected to [[timber industry]] interests and therefore do not guarantee environmentally and socially responsible forest management. In reality, monitoring systems are inadequate and various cases of fraud have been documented worldwide.<ref>[http://www.rainforest-rescue.org/topics/tropical-timber/faq Facts about Tropical Timber]. Rainforest Rescue. Retrieved 13 November 2016.</ref> |
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Some nations have taken steps to help increase the amount of trees on Earth. In 1981, China created National Tree Planting Day Forest and forest coverage had now reached 16.55% of China's land mass, as against only 12% two decades ago.<ref name=battling>Gittings, John (20 March 2001). [https://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/mar/20/worlddispatch.china "Battling China's Deforestation."] ''The Guardian''.</ref> |
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Using fuel from [[bamboo]] rather than wood results in cleaner burning, and since bamboo matures much faster than wood, deforestation is reduced as supply can be replenished faster.<ref name=bamboo>{{cite news|url=http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/03/13/in-africas-vanishing-forests-the-benefits-of-bamboo/?ref=global-home|title=In Africa’s vanishing forests, the benefits of bamboo|work=New York Times|date=13 March 2012|accessdate=26 July 2012|first=Tina|last=Rosenberg}}</ref> |
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===Reforestation=== |
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{{Main article|Reforestation}} |
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In many parts of the world, especially in East Asian countries, reforestation and [[afforestation]] are increasing the area of forested lands.<ref>{{cite journal|year = 2005|title = Global Consequences of Land Use|volume = 309|issue = 5734| pages = 570–574|doi = 10.1126/science.1111772|pmid = 16040698|journal = Science|author1 = Foley|first1 = J. A.|last2 = Defries|first2 = R|last3 = Asner|first3 = G. P.|last4 = Barford|first4 = C|last5 = Bonan|first5 = G|last6 = Carpenter|first6 = S. R.|last7 = Chapin|first7 = F. S.|last8 = Coe|first8 = M. T.|last9 = Daily|first9 = G. C.|last10 = Gibbs|first10 = H. K.|last11 = Helkowski|first11 = J. H.|last12 = Holloway|first12 = T|last13 = Howard|first13 = E. A.|last14 = Kucharik|first14 = C. J.|last15 = Monfreda|first15 = C|last16 = Patz|first16 = J. A.|last17 = Prentice|first17 = I. C.|last18 = Ramankutty|first18 = N|last19 = Snyder|first19 = P. K.|bibcode = 2005Sci...309..570F}}</ref> The amount of woodland has increased in 22 of the world's 50 most forested nations. Asia as a whole gained 1 million [[hectare]]s of forest between 2000 and 2005. Tropical forest in El Salvador expanded more than 20% between 1992 and 2001. Based on these trends, one study projects that global forest will increase by 10%—an area the size of India—by 2050.<ref name=Owen>James Owen, [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/11/061113-forests.html "World's Forests Rebounding, Study Suggests"]. ''National Geographic News'', 13 November 2006.</ref> |
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In the [[People's Republic of China]], where large scale destruction of forests has occurred, the government has in the past required that every able-bodied citizen between the ages of 11 and 60 plant three to five trees per year or do the equivalent amount of work in other forest services. The government claims that at least 1 [[1000000000 (number)|billion]] trees have been planted in China every year since 1982. This is no longer required today, but 12 March of every year in China is the Planting Holiday. Also, it has introduced the [[Green Wall of China]] project, which aims to halt the expansion of the Gobi desert through the planting of trees. However, due to the large percentage of trees dying off after planting (up to 75%), the project is not very successful.{{Citation needed|date=October 2008}} There has been a 47-million-hectare increase in forest area in China since the 1970s.<ref name=Owen/> The total number of trees amounted to be about 35 billion and 4.55% of China's land mass increased in forest coverage. The forest coverage was 12% two decades ago and now is 16.55%.<ref name=battling/> |
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An ambitious proposal for China is the Aerially Delivered Re-forestation and Erosion Control System and the proposed Sahara Forest Project coupled with the [[Seawater Greenhouse]]. |
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In Western countries, increasing consumer demand for wood products that have been produced and harvested in a sustainable manner is causing forest landowners and [[Wood industry|forest industries]] to become increasingly accountable for their forest management and timber harvesting practices. |
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The [[Arbor Day Foundation]]'s Rain Forest Rescue program is a charity that helps to prevent deforestation. The charity uses donated money to buy up and preserve rainforest land before the [[lumber]] companies can buy it. The Arbor Day Foundation then protects the land from deforestation. This also locks in the way of life of the primitive tribes living on the forest land. Organizations such as [[Community Forestry International]], [[Cool Earth]], [[The Nature Conservancy]], [[World Wide Fund for Nature]], [[Conservation International]], [[African Conservation Foundation]] and [[Greenpeace]] also focus on preserving forest habitats. Greenpeace in particular has also mapped out the forests that are still intact<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090327183443/http://www.intactforests.org/publications/intactforests_poster_preview.pdf The world’s last intact forest landscapes]. intactforests.org</ref> and published this information on the internet.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.intactforests.org|work=intactforests.org|title=World Intact Forests campaign by Greenpeace}}</ref> World Resources Institute in turn has made a simpler thematic map<ref>[http://replay.web.archive.org/20100724183523/http://www.wri.org/map/worlds-forests-restoration-perspective The World's Forests from a Restoration Perspective], WRI</ref> showing the amount of forests present just before the age of man (8000 years ago) and the current (reduced) levels of forest.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://static.howstuffworks.com/gif/maps/pdf/WOR_THEM_Forests.pdf|title=Alternative thematic map by Howstuffworks; in pdf|format=PDF}}</ref> These maps mark the amount of afforestation required to repair the damage caused by people. |
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===Forest plantations=== |
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To meet the world's demand for wood, it has been suggested by forestry writers Botkins and [[Sedjo]] that high-yielding forest [[plantations]] are suitable. It has been calculated that plantations yielding 10 cubic meters per hectare annually could supply all the timber required for international trade on 5% of the world's existing forestland. By contrast, natural forests produce about 1–2 cubic meters per hectare; therefore, 5–10 times more forestland would be required to meet demand. Forester Chad Oliver has suggested a forest mosaic with high-yield forest lands interspersed with conservation land.<ref>{{cite book|author=Botkin, Daniel B. |title=No man's garden: Thoreau and a new vision for civilization and nature|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OvF40zunJR4C&pg=PA246|accessdate=4 December 2011|year=2001|publisher=Island Press|isbn=978-1-55963-465-6|pages=246–247}}</ref> |
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Globally, planted forests increased from 4.1% to 7.0% of the total forest area between 1990 and 2015.<ref name="Payn, T. 2015">Payn, T. et al. 2015. Changes in planted forests and future global implications, Forest Ecology and Management 352: 57–67</ref> Plantation forests made up 280 million ha in 2015, an increase of about 40 million ha in the last ten years.<ref>FAO. 2015. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2015. How are the world’s forests changing?</ref> Globally, planted forests consist of about 18% exotic or introduced species while the rest are species native to the country where they are planted. In South America, Oceania, and East and Southern Africa, planted forests are dominated by introduced species: 88%, 75% and 65%, respectively. In North America, West and Central Asia, and Europe the proportions of introduced species in plantations are much lower at 1%, 3% and 8% of the total area planted, respectively.<ref name="Payn, T. 2015"/> |
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In the country of Senegal, on the western coast of Africa, a movement headed by youths has helped to plant over 6 million mangrove trees. The trees will protect local villages from storm damages and will provide a habitat for local wildlife. The project started in 2008, and already the Senegalese government has been asked to establish rules and regulations that would protect the new mangrove forests.<ref>{{cite book|last=Stenstrup|first=Allen|title=Forests|year=2010|publisher=Morgan Reynolds Publishing|location=Greensboro, North Carolina|isbn=978-1-59935-116-2|page=89}}</ref> |
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==Military context== |
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{{See also|Environmental impact of war}} |
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[[File:Attack on bloody ridge.jpg|thumb|American [[M4 Sherman|Sherman tanks]] knocked out by Japanese artillery on Okinawa.]]While the preponderance of deforestation is due to demands for agricultural and urban use for the human population, there are some examples of military causes. One example of deliberate deforestation is that which took place in the U.S. [[Allied Occupation Zones in Germany|zone of occupation]] in Germany after World War II. Before the onset of the [[Cold War]], defeated Germany was still considered a potential future threat rather than potential future ally. To address this threat, attempts were made to [[Industrial plans for Germany|lower German industrial potential]], of which forests were deemed an element. Sources in the U.S. government admitted that the purpose of this was that the "ultimate destruction of the war potential of German forests." As a consequence of the practice of clear-felling, deforestation resulted which could "be replaced only by long forestry development over perhaps a century."<ref>Balabkins, Nicholas (1964) "Germany Under Direct Controls; Economic Aspects Of Industrial Disarmament 1945–1948, Rutgers University Press. p. 119. The two quotes used by Balabkins are referenced to, respectively: U.S. office of Military Government, ''A Year of Potsdam: The German Economy Since the Surrender'' (1946), p. 70; and U.S. Office of Military Government, ''The German Forest Resources Survey'' (1948), p. II. For similar observations see G.W. Harmssen, ''Reparationen, Sozialproduct, Lebensstandard'' (Bremen: F. Trujen Verlag, 1948), I, 48.</ref> |
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Deforestation can also be one consequence of [[war]]. For example, in the 1945 [[Battle of Okinawa]], [[bombardment]] and other [[Military operation|combat operations]] reduced the lush tropical landscape into "a vast field of mud, lead, decay and maggots".<ref>Higa, Takejiro. [http://nisei.hawaii.edu/object/11_takejiro.html Battle of Okinawa], The Hawaii Nisei Project</ref> Deforestation can also be an intentional tactic of [[military forces]]. [[Defoliant]]s (like [[Agent Orange]] or others) was used by the British in the [[Malayan Emergency]], and by the United States in the [[Korean War]] and [[Vietnam War]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Pesticide Dilemma in the Third World: A Case Study of Malaysia |page=23 |publisher=Phoenix Press |year=1984}}</ref><ref>"Encyclopedia of World Environmental History". Routledge, 2004. ISBN 0-415-93733-7.</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Marchak, M. Patricia |title=Logging the globe|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Oi-xLllDK8oC&pg=PA157|accessdate=4 December 2011|date=18 September 1995|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP|isbn=978-0-7735-1346-4|pages=157–}}</ref> |
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== Public health context == |
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Deforestation eliminates a great number of species of plants and animals which also often results in an increase in disease.<ref name=CHGE>[http://www.chgeharvard.org/topic/biodiversity-and-infectious-diseases Biodiversity and Infectious Diseases], Center for Health and the Global Environment, [[Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health]], Harvard University (last accessed May 15, 2017.</ref> Loss of native species allows new species to come to dominance. Often the destruction of predatory species can result in an increase in rodent populations which can carry [[plague]]. Additionally, erosion can produce pools of stagnant water that are perfect breeding grounds for mosquitos, well known vectors of [[malaria]], [[yellow fever]], [[Henipavirus|nipah virus]], and more.<ref>Bruce A. Wilcox & Brett Ellis, [http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/a0789e/a0789e03.html Forests and emerging infectious diseases of humans], United Nations [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] Corporate Document Repository.</ref> Deforestation can also create a path for non-native species to flourish such as certain types of snails, which have been correlated with an increase in [[schistosomiasis]] cases.<ref name=CHGE/><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Impacts of an Invasive Snail|journal=PLoS ONE|volume=7|issue=6|pages=e38806|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0038806|pmid=22761706|year=2012|last1=Moslemi|first1=Jennifer M.|last2=Snider|first2=Sunny B.|last3=MacNeill|first3=Keeley|last4=Gilliam|first4=James F.|last5=Flecker|first5=Alexander S.|pmc=3382606|bibcode=2012PLoSO...738806M}}</ref> |
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Deforestation is occurring all over the world and has been coupled with an increase in the occurrence of disease outbreaks. In [[Malaysia]], thousands of acres of forest have been cleared for pig farms. This has resulted in an increase in the zoonosis the Nipah virus.<ref>[http://thebulletin.org/deforestation-and-emerging-diseases Deforestation and emerging diseases | Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists]. Thebulletin.org (15 February 2011). Retrieved 2016-11-13.</ref> In [[Kenya]], deforestation has led to an increase in malaria cases which is now the leading cause of morbidity and mortality the country.<ref>[http://www.african-politics.com/tag/environmental-impact-of-deforestation-in-kenya/ African Politics Portal | Tag Archive | Environmental impact of deforestation in Kenya]. African-politics.com (28 May 2009). Retrieved 2016-11-13.</ref><ref>[http://kff.org/news-summary/2014-kenya-economic-survey-marks-malaria-as-countrys-leading-cause-of-death/ 2014 Kenya Economic Survey Marks Malaria As Country’s Leading Cause Of Death | The Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation]. Kff.org (1 May 2014). Retrieved 2016-11-13.</ref> A 2017 study in the ''[[The American Economic Review|American Economic Review]]'' found that deforestation substantially increased the incidence of malaria in Nigeria.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Julia|first=Berazneva,|last2=S.|first2=Byker, Tanya|date=2017-05-01|title=Does Forest Loss Increase Human Disease? Evidence from Nigeria|url=https://www.aeaweb.org/atypon.php?return_path=/doi/pdfplus/10.1257/aer.p20171132&etoc=1|journal=American Economic Review|language=en|volume=107|issue=5|doi=10.1257/aer.p20171132&etoc=1|issn=0002-8282}}</ref> |
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Another pathway through which deforestation affects disease is the relocation and dispersion of disease-carrying hosts. This disease emergence pathway can be called “[[Colonisation (biology)|range expansion]],” whereby the host’s range (and thereby the range of pathogens) expands to new geographic areas.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Range Expansion and Population Dynamics of an Invasive Species: The Eurasian Collared-Dove (''Streptopelia decaocto'')|journal=PLoS ONE|volume=9|issue=10|pages=e111510|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0111510|pmid=25354270|year=2014|last1=Scheidt|first1=Spencer N.|last2=Hurlbert|first2=Allen H.|pmc=4213033|bibcode=2014PLoSO...9k1510S}}</ref> Through deforestation, hosts and reservoir species are forced into neighboring habitats. Accompanying the reservoir species are pathogens that have the ability to find new hosts in previously unexposed regions. As these pathogens and species come into closer contact with humans, they are infected both directly and indirectly. |
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A catastrophic example of range expansion is the 1998 outbreak of Nipah virus in Malaysia.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1086/338818|pmid=11938496|title=Nipah Virus Encephalitis Outbreak in Malaysia|journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases|volume=34|pages=S48–51|year=2002|last1=Lam|first1=Sai Kit|last2=Chua|first2=Kaw Bing}}</ref> For a number of years, deforestation, drought, and subsequent fires led to a dramatic geographic shift and density of [[Megabat|fruit bats]], a reservoir for Nipah virus.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cdc.gov/vhf/nipah/|title=Nipah Virus (NiV)|date=|website=|publisher=cdc.gov|accessdate=}}</ref> Deforestation reduced the available fruiting trees in the bats’ habitat, and they encroached on surrounding orchards which also happened to be the location of a large number of pigsties. The bats, through proximity spread the Nipah to pigs. While the virus infected the pigs, mortality was much lower than among humans, making the pigs a virulent host leading to the transmission of the virus to humans. This resulted in 265 reported cases of [[encephalitis]], of which 105 resulted in death. This example provides an important lesson for the impact deforestation can have on human health. |
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Another example of range expansion due to deforestation and other [[Anthropogenic hazard|anthropogenic]] habitat impacts includes the [[Capybara]] rodent in [[Paraguay]].<ref>[http://news.mongabay.com/2010/12/deforestation-sparks-giant-rodent-invasions/ Deforestation sparks giant rodent invasions]. News.mongabay.com (15 December 2010). Retrieved 2016-11-13.</ref> This rodent is the host of a number of [[Zoonosis|zoonotic]] diseases and, while there has not yet been a human-borne outbreak due to the movement of this rodent into new regions, it offers an example of how habitat destruction through deforestation and subsequent movements of species is occurring regularly. |
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A now well-developed theory is that the spread of [[HIV]] it is at least partially due deforestation. Rising populations created a food demand and with deforestation opening up new areas of the forest the hunters harvested a great deal of primate bushmeat, which is believed to be the origin of HIV.<ref name=CHGE/> |
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==See also== |
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{{colbegin|3}} |
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*[[Assarting]] |
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*[[Biochar]] |
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*[[Clearcutting]] |
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*[[Deforestation and climate change]] |
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*[[Deforestation by region]] |
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**{{in title|deforestation in}} |
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**{{in title|deforestation of}} |
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**{{in title|land clearing in}} |
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*[[Deforestation during the Roman period]] |
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*[[Desertification]] |
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*[[Ecoforestry]] |
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*[[Economic impact analysis]] |
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*[[Environmental issues with paper]] |
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*[[Environmental philosophy]] |
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*[[Extinction]] |
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*[[Flexible Mechanisms|CDM & JI A/R projects]] |
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*[[Forestry]] |
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*[[Human overpopulation|Overpopulation]] |
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*[[Illegal logging]] |
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*[[Intact forest landscape]] |
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*[[International Year of Forests]] |
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*[[Land use, land-use change and forestry]] |
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*[[Lumberjack]] |
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*[[Moisture recycling]] |
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*[[Mountaintop removal]] |
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*[[Natural landscape]] |
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*[[Neolithic]] |
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*[[Rainforest]] |
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*[[Richard St. Barbe Baker]] |
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*[[Satoyama]] |
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*[[Slash-and-burn]] |
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*[[Slash-and-char]] |
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*[[Terra preta]] |
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*[[Wilderness]] |
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*[[World Forestry Congress]] |
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{{colend}} |
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==References== |
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;Notes |
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{{Reflist|30em}} |
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;General references |
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{{Refbegin}} |
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*BBC 2005 TV series on the history of geological factors shaping human history (name?) |
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*''A Natural History of Europe'' – 2005 co-production including BBC and ZDF |
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*Whitney, Gordon G. (1996). ''From Coastal Wilderness to Fruited Plain : A History of Environmental Change in Temperate North America from 1500 to the Present''. [[Cambridge University Press]]. ISBN 0-521-57658-X |
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*Williams, Michael. (2003). ''Deforesting the Earth''. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. ISBN 0-226-89926-8 |
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*Wunder, Sven. (2000). ''The Economics of Deforestation: The Example of Ecuador''. [[Macmillan Publishers|Macmillan Press]], London. ISBN 0-333-73146-8 |
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*FAO&CIFOR report: [http://www.fao.org/docrep/008/ae929e/ae929e00.htm Forests and Floods: Drowning in Fiction or Thriving on Facts?] |
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*{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=g6RfkqCUQyQC&pg=PA147&dq=oxygen+percent+algae+plants |title=Plants: the potentials for extracting protein, medicines, and other useful chemicals (workshop proceedings) |date=September 1983 |chapter=Marine Plants: A Unique and Unexplored Resource |last=Fenical |first=William |page=147 |isbn=1-4289-2397-7 |publisher=DIANE Publishing}} |
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{{Refend}} |
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;Ethiopia deforestation references |
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{{Refbegin}} |
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*Parry, J. (2003). Tree choppers become tree planters. Appropriate Technology, 30(4), 38–39. Retrieved 22 November 2006, from ABI/INFORM Global database. (Document ID: 538367341). |
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*Hillstrom, K & Hillstrom, C. (2003). Africa and the Middle east. A continental Overview of Environmental Issues. Santabarbara, CA: ABC CLIO. |
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*Williams, M. (2006). Deforesting the earth: From prehistory to global crisis: An Abridgment. Chicago: The university of Chicago Press. |
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*{{cite journal | last1 = Mccann | first1 = J.C. | year = 1990 | title = A Great Agrarian cycle? Productivity in Highland Ethiopia, 1900 To 1987 | url = | journal = Journal of Interdisciplinary History | volume = xx | pages = 3,389–416 }} |
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{{Refend}} |
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==External links== |
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{{Commons|Deforestation}} |
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*[http://earthenginepartners.appspot.com/science-2013-global-forest Global map of deforestation based on Landsat data] |
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* [http://www.eorc.jaxa.jp/jjfast/ JICA-JAXA Forest Early Warning System in the Tropics: JJ-FAST (FOREST GOVERNANCE INITIATIVE)]- [[Japan International Cooperation Agency|JICA]]-[[JAXA]] |
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*[http://www.intactforests.org/world.map.html Old-growth forest zones within the remaining world forests] |
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*[http://www.eia-international.org/campaigns/forests/ EIA forest reports]: Investigations into illegal logging. |
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*[http://www.eia-global.org/forests_for_the_world/ EIA in the USA] Reports and info. |
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*[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/nov/19/cocaine-rainforests-columbia-santos-calderon Cocaine destroys 4 m2 of rainforest per gram] The Guardian |
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*[http://www.worldwatch.org/node/6034 "Avoided Deforestation" Plan Gains Support – Worldwatch Institute] |
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*[http://uk.oneworld.net/guides/forests OneWorld Tropical Forests Guide] |
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*[http://www.forestindustries.eu/redd Some Background Info to Deforestation and REDD+] |
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*[http://www.effects-of-deforestation.com General info on deforestation effects] |
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;In the media |
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*14 March 2007, ''[[The Independent|Independent Online]]'': [http://news.independent.co.uk/environment/article2355962.ece Destruction of forests in developing world 'out of control'] |
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*{{cite web |
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| last = Pappas | first = S. | title = Vanishing Forests: New Map Details Global Deforestation |
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| work = LiveScience.com |
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| publisher = [[TechMediaNetwork]] |
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| date = 14 November 2013 | url = http://www.livescience.com/41215-map-reveals-global-deforestation.html |
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| accessdate = 16 November 2013}} |
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;Films online |
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*Watch the [[National Film Board of Canada]] documentaries [http://www.nfb.ca/film/battle_for_the_trees/ ''Battle for the Trees''] & [http://www.nfb.ca/film/forest_in_crisis/ ''Forest in Crisis''] |
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*[http://indigenouspeoplesissues.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=4668:video-on-deforestation-in-paraguay-as-a-result-of-agricultural-development-impact-to-indigenous-people-and-wildlife&catid=68:videos-and-movies&Itemid=96 Video on Illegal Deforestation In Paraguay] |
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{{Deforestation and desertification|state=expanded}} |
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{{Deforestation}} |
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{{Human impact on the environment}} |
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{{Portal bar|Environment|Ecology|Earth sciences|Biology|Sustainable development}} |
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[[Category:Deforestation| ]] |
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[[Category:Climate forcing agents]] |
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[[Category:World forestry]] |
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[[Category:Environmental issues with forests]] |
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[[Category:Aftermath of war]] |
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[[Category:History of forestry]] |
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[[Category:Forest pathology]] |
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Revision as of 20:32, 17 June 2017
qwerty keyboard says no to this meaning of deforestation and wikepedia is foolishness