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<!--**** Family [[Diplocentridae]] <small>Karsch, 1880</small> Been demoted to Family level-->[[Category:Scorpions| ]]
{{About|the arthropod|other uses|Scorpion (disambiguation)}}
{{Automatic taxobox
| name = Scorpions
| taxon = Scorpiones
| image = Scorpion_Photograph_By_Shantanu_Kuveskar.jpg
| image_caption = ''[[Hottentotta tamulus]]'' from [[Mangaon]], [[Maharashtra]], [[India]]
| fossil_range = {{Fossil range|430|0}}<small>Early [[Silurian]] – [[Holocene|present]]</small>
| authority = [[Carl Ludwig Koch|C. L. Koch]], 1837
| subdivision_ranks = Superfamilies
| subdivision =
*[[Buthoidea]]
*[[Chaeriloidea]]
*[[Chactoidea]]
*[[Iuroidea]]
*[[Pseudochactoidea]]
*[[Scorpionoidea]]
See [[#Classification|classification]] for families.
}}
'''Scorpions''' are [[predation|predatory]] [[arachnid]]s of the [[Order (biology)|order]] '''Scorpiones'''. They have eight legs<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.scorpionworlds.com/|title= SCORPION FACTS AND INFORMATION|publisher=ScorpionWorlds|accessdate=19 February 2015}}</ref> and are easily recognized by the pair of grasping [[pedipalp]]s and the narrow, segmented [[tail]], often carried in a characteristic forward curve over the back, ending with a [[venom]]ous [[stinger]]. Scorpions range in size from 9&nbsp;mm / 0.3 in. (''[[Typhlochactas mitchelli]]'') to 23&nbsp;cm / 9 in. (''[[Heterometrus swammerdami]]'').<ref>{{cite book |author=Manny Rubio |year=2000 |title=Scorpions: Everything About Purchase, Care, Feeding, and Housing |publisher=[[Barron's Educational Series|Barron's]] |isbn=978-0-7641-1224-9 |chapter=Commonly Available Scorpions|pages=26–27
|url=https://www.amazon.com/Scorpions-Everything-Purchase-Feeding-Complete/dp/B00E404CAQ/
|quote=The Guinness Book of Records claims [...] Heterometrus swammerdami'', to be the largest scorpion in the world [9 inches (23 cm)}}</ref>

The evolutionary history of scorpions goes back to the [[Silurian]] era 430 million years ago. They have adapted to a wide range of environmental conditions and can now be found on all continents except [[Antarctica]]. Scorpions number about 1750 described [[species]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://kovarex.com/scorpio/pdf/scorpions-Kovarik-2009.pdf |format=PDF |author=František Kovařík |year=2009 |title=Illustrated catalog of scorpions, Part I |accessdate=January 22, 2011}}</ref> with 13 extant families recognised to date. Only about 25 of these species are known to have venom capable of killing a human being.<ref name="Biology">{{cite book |title=The Biology of Scorpions |author=Gary A. Polis |year=1990 |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-8047-1249-1 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=6OqeAAAAIAAJ}}</ref>{{rp|1}} The taxonomy has undergone changes and is likely to change further, as genetic studies are bringing forth new information.

Scorpion stings are painful but are usually harmless to humans. For stings from species found in North America, no treatment is normally needed for healthy adults, although medical care should be sought for children and for the elderly. More harmful stings from species found in South America, Africa, and western Asia may require medical attention.<ref>{{cite web|title=Diseases and Conditions – Scorpion stings|url=http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/scorpion-stings/basics/definition/con-20033894|publisher=[[Mayo Clinic]]|accessdate=3 July 2015}}</ref>

==Etymology==
The word ''[[:wikt:scorpion|scorpion]]'' is thought to have originated in [[Middle English]] between 1175 and 1225 [[AD]] from [[Old French]] ''{{lang|fro|scorpion}}'',<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Scorpion |encyclopedia=[[The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language|American Heritage Dictionary]] |edition=4th |year=2003 |accessdate=April 14, 2010 |url=http://www.thefreedictionary.com/scorpion}}</ref> or from [[Italian language|Italian]] ''{{Lang|ita|scorpione}}'', both derived from the [[Latin]] word ''{{Lang|la|scorpius}}'',<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Scorpion |encyclopedia=Dictionary.com |publisher=[[Random House]] |url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/scorpion |accessdate=April 14, 2010}}</ref> which is the [[romanization]] of the [[Greek language|Greek]] word {{lang|el|[[:wikt:σκορπίος|σκορπίος]]}}&nbsp;– ''{{lang|el|skorpíos}}''.<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2395171 σκορπιός], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus.</ref>

==Geographical distribution==
Scorpions are found on all major land masses except Antarctica. Scorpions did not occur naturally in Great Britain, Japan, South Korea, New Zealand and some of the islands in [[Oceania]], but now have been accidentally introduced in some of these places by human trade and commerce.<ref name="Biology"/>{{rp|249}} The greatest diversity of scorpions in the [[Northern Hemisphere]] is to be found in regions between the latitudes [[23rd parallel north|23° N]] and [[38th parallel north|38° N]]. Above these latitudes, the diversity decreases, with the northernmost natural occurrence of scorpions being the northern scorpion ''[[Paruroctonus boreus]]'' at [[Medicine Hat]], Alberta, Canada [[50th parallel north|50° N]].<ref name="Biology"/>{{rp|251}} Five colonies of scorpions (''[[Euscorpius flavicaudis]]'') have established themselves in [[Sheerness]] on the [[Isle of Sheppey]] in the United Kingdom.<ref>{{cite journal |author=T. G. Benton |year=1992 |title=The ecology of the scorpion ''Euscorpius flavicaudis'' in England |journal=[[Journal of Zoology]] |volume=226 |issue=3 |pages=351–368 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.1992.tb07484.x}}</ref> This small population has been resident since the 1860s, having probably arrived with imported fruit from Africa. This scorpion species is small and completely harmless to humans. At just over 51° N, this marks the northernmost limit where scorpions live in the wild.<ref>{{cite journal |author=T. G. Benton |year=1991 |title=The life history of ''Euscorpius flavicaudis'' (Scorpiones, Chactidae) |journal=[[Journal of Arachnology]] |volume=19 |pages=105–110 |url=http://www.americanarachnology.org/JoA_free/JoA_v19_n2%20/JoA_v19_p105.pdf |format=PDF}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ub.ntnu.no/scorpion-files/e_flavicaudis.htm |title=''Euscorpius flavicaudis'' |accessdate=2008-06-13 |author=Jan Ove Rein |year=2000 |work=The Scorpion Files |publisher=[[Norwegian University of Science and Technology]]}}</ref>

Today, scorpions are found in virtually every terrestrial [[habitat]], including high-elevation mountains, caves and intertidal zones, with the exception of [[boreal ecosystem]]s, such as the [[tundra]], high-altitude [[taiga]], and the permanently snow-clad tops of some mountains.<ref name="Biology"/>{{rp|251–252}}<ref>{{cite book |title=African biodiversity: molecules, organisms, ecosystems |author=Bernhard A. Huber, Bradley J. Sinclair and K.-H. Lampe|year=2005 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-387-24315-3 |page=26 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=6Yr_OJsU_aYC }}</ref> As regards [[microhabitat]]s, scorpions may be ground-dwelling, tree-living, rock-loving, or [[psammophilic|sand-loving]]. Some species, such as ''[[Vaejovis janssi]]'', are versatile and found in every type of habitat in [[Baja California]], while others occupy specialized niches such as ''[[Euscorpius carpathicus]]'', which occupies the [[littoral zone]] of the shore.<ref name="Earthlife">{{cite web |url=http://www.earthlife.net/chelicerata/scorpionidae.html |title=The Earthlife Web: The Scorpions |author=Gordon Ramel |publisher=The Earthlife Web |accessdate=2010-04-08}}</ref>

==Classification==
{{Main|Taxonomy of scorpions}}
There are thirteen known families and about 1,750 described species and subspecies of scorpions. In addition, there are 111 described taxa of extinct scorpions.<ref name="Dunlop08">{{cite journal |author1=Jason A. Dunlop |author2=David Penney |author3=O. Erik Tetlie |author4=Lyall I. Anderson |lastauthoramp=yes |year=2008 |title=How many species of fossil arachnids are there |journal=[[Journal of Arachnology]] |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=262–272|doi=10.1636/CH07-89.1}}</ref>

This classification is based on that of Soleglad & Fet (2003),<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Michael E. Soleglad |author2=Victor Fet |lastauthoramp=yes |year=2003 |title=High-level systematics and phylogeny of the extant scorpions (Scorpiones: Orthosterni) |journal=[[Euscorpius (journal)|Euscorpius]] |volume=11 |pages=1–175 |url=http://www.science.marshall.edu/fet/euscorpius/pubs.htm |format=multiple parts |accessdate=2008-06-13}}</ref> which replaced the older, unpublished classification of Stockwell.<ref>Scott A. Stockwell (1989). ''Revision of the Phylogeny and Higher Classification of Scorpions (Chelicerata)''. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of California, Berkeley</ref> Additional taxonomic changes are from papers by Soleglad et al. (2005).<ref name=Soleglad2005>{{cite journal |author1=Michael E. Soleglad |author2=Victor Fet |author3=F. Kovařík |lastauthoramp=yes |year=2005 |title=The systematic position of the scorpion genera ''Heteroscorpion'' Birula, 1903 and ''Urodacus'' Peters, 1861 (Scorpiones: Scorpionoidea) |journal=[[Euscorpius (journal)|Euscorpius]] |publisher=Marshall University |volume=20 |pages=1–38 |url=http://www.science.marshall.edu/fet/euscorpius/p2005_20.pdf |accessdate=2008-06-13}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=V. Fet |author2=E. Soleglad |lastauthoramp=yes |year=2005 |title=Contributions to scorpion systematics. I. On recent changes in high-level taxonomy. |journal=[[Euscorpius (journal)|Euscorpius]] |publisher=Marshall University|issue=31 |pages=1–13 |url=http://www.science.marshall.edu/fet/euscorpius/p2005_31.pdf |issn=1536-9307|accessdate=2010-04-07 }}</ref>

===Systematics===
The following classification covers extant taxa to the [[taxonomic rank|rank]] of [[family (biology)|family]].
; Order Scorpiones
* Infraorder [[Orthosterni]] <small>[[Reginald Innes Pocock|Pocock]], 1911</small>
** Parvorder [[Pseudochactida]] <small>[[Michael E. Soleglad|Soleglad]] et [[Victor Fet|Fet]], 2003</small>
*** Superfamily [[Pseudochactoidea]] <small>[[Alexander V. Gromov|Gromov]], 1998</small>
**** Family [[Pseudochactidae]] <small>[[Alexander V. Gromov|Gromov]], 1998</small>
** Parvorder [[Buthida]] <small>[[Michael E. Soleglad|Soleglad]] et [[Victor Fet|Fet]], 2003</small>
*** Superfamily [[Buthoidea]] <small>[[Carl Ludwig Koch|C. L. Koch]], 1837</small>
**** Family [[Buthidae]] <small>[[Carl Ludwig Koch|C. L. Koch]], 1837</small> (thick-tailed scorpions)
**** Family [[Microcharmidae]] <small>[[Wilson R. Lourenço|Lourenço]], 1996</small>
** Parvorder [[Chaerilida]] <small>[[Michael E. Soleglad|Soleglad]] et [[Victor Fet|Fet]], 2003</small>
*** Superfamily [[Chaeriloidea]] <small>[[Reginald Innes Pocock|Pocock]], 1893</small>
**** Family [[Chaerilidae]] <small>[[Reginald Innes Pocock|Pocock]], 1893</small>
** Parvorder [[Iurida]] <small>[[Michael E. Soleglad|Soleglad]] et [[Victor Fet|Fet]], 2003</small>
*** Superfamily [[Chactoidea]] <small>[[Reginald Innes Pocock|Pocock]], 1893</small>
**** Family [[Chactidae]] <small>[[Reginald Innes Pocock|Pocock]], 1893</small>
**** Family [[Euscorpiidae]] <small>Laurie, 1896</small>
**** Family [[Superstitioniidae]] <small>[[Herbert Stahnke|Stahnke]], 1940</small>
**** Family [[Vaejovidae]] <small>[[Tord Tamerlan Teodor Thorell|Thorell]], 1876</small>
*** Superfamily [[Iuroidea]] <small>[[Tord Tamerlan Teodor Thorell|Thorell]], 1876</small>
**** Family [[Caraboctonidae]] <small>[[Karl Kraepelin|Kraepelin]], 1905</small> ([[hairy scorpion]]s)
**** Family [[Iuridae]] <small>[[Tord Tamerlan Teodor Thorell|Thorell]], 1876</small>
*** Superfamily [[Scorpionoidea]] <small>[[Pierre André Latreille|Latreille]], 1802</small>
**** Family [[Bothriuridae]] <small>[[Eugène Simon|Simon]], 1880</small><!-- RevBrasOrnitol14:359. -->
<!--**** Family [[Diplocentridae]] <small>Karsch, 1880</small> Been demoted to Family level-->
**** Family [[Hemiscorpiidae]] <small>[[Reginald Innes Pocock|Pocock]], 1893</small> (= Ischnuridae, =Liochelidae) ([[rock scorpion]]s, [[creeping scorpion]]s, or [[tree scorpion]]s)
**** Family [[Scorpionidae]] <small>[[Pierre André Latreille|Latreille]], 1802</small> ([[burrowing scorpion]]s or [[pale-legged scorpion]]s)

==Fossil record==
[[File:The Eurypterida of New York plate 88.jpg|thumb|upright|''Proscorpius osborni'', fossil scorpion initially thought to be a [[eurypterid]]]]
Scorpions have been found in many [[fossil record]]s, including marine [[Silurian]] and estuarine [[Devonian]] deposits, coal deposits from the [[Carboniferous Period]] and in [[amber]]. The oldest known scorpions lived around 430 million years ago in the Silurian period. Though once believed to have lived on the bottom of shallow tropical seas,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg12617214.200-when-scorpions-ruled-the-world-scorpions-took-the-big-step-onto-solid-ground-about-300-million-years-ago-scottish-fossils-reveal-how-they-evolved-to-leave-the-seas-and-become-the-first-predators-on-land.html |title=When scorpions ruled the world |work=[[New Scientist]] |date=June 16, 1990 |author=Andrew Jeram}}</ref> early scorpions are now believed to have been terrestrial and to have washed into marine settings together with plant matter. These first scorpions were believed to have had gills instead of the present forms' [[book lung]]s though this has subsequently been refuted.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Gerhard Scholtz |author2=Carsten Kamenz |lastauthoramp=yes |doi=10.1016/j.zool.2005.06.003|title= The book lungs of Scorpiones and Tetrapulmonata (Chelicerata, Arachnida): evidence for homology and a single terrestrialisation event of a common arachnid ancestor |year= 2006 |journal= Zoology |volume= 109 |issue= 1 |pages= 2–13 |pmid= 16386884}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Jason A. Dunlop, O. Erik Tetlie & Lorenzo Prendini |doi=10.1111/j.1475-4983.2007.00749.x |title=Reinterpretation of the Silurian scorpion ''Proscorpius osborni'' (Whitfield): integrating data from Palaeozoic and recent scorpions |year=2008 |journal=Palaeontology |volume=51 |issue=2 |pages=303–320}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=G. Kühl, A. Bergmann, J. Dunlop, R. J. Garwood & J. Rust |doi=10.1111/j.1475-4983.2012.01152.x|title=Redescription and palaeobiology of ''Palaeoscorpius devonicus'' Lehmann, 1944 from the Lower Devonian Hunsrück Slate of Germany |year=2012 |journal=Palaeontology |volume=55 |issue=4 |pages=775–787}}</ref> The oldest [[Gondwana]]n scorpiones (''[[Gondwanascorpio]]'') comprise the earliest known terrestrial animals from Gondwana.<ref>{{cite journal |author=R. W. Gess |year=2013 |title= The earliest record of terrestrial animals in Gondwana: a scorpion from the Famennian (Late Devonian) Witpoort Formation of South Africa |journal=[[African Invertebrates]] |volume=54 |issue=2 |pages= 373–379 |url=http://africaninvertebrates.org/ojs/index.php/AI/article/view/284 |doi=10.5733/afin.054.0206}}</ref> Currently, 111 fossil species of scorpion are known.<ref name="Dunlop08"/> Unusually for arachnids, there are more species of [[Palaeozoic]] scorpion than [[Mesozoic]] or [[Cenozoic]] ones.

The [[Eurypterida|eurypterids]], commonly called "sea scorpions", were [[Marine (ocean)|marine]] creatures that lived during the [[Palaeozoic]] era that share several physical traits with scorpions and may be closely related to them. Various species of Eurypterida could grow to be anywhere from {{convert|10|cm|in}} to {{convert|2.5|m|ft}} in length.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Simon J. Braddy, Markus Poschmann & O. Erik Tetlie |title=Giant claw reveals the largest ever arthropod |journal=[[Biology Letters]] |year=2008 |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=106–109 |doi=10.1098/rsbl.2007.0491 |pmid=18029297 |pmc=2412931}}</ref> However, they exhibit [[anatomy|anatomical]] differences marking them off as a group distinct from their Carboniferous and Recent relatives. Despite this, they are commonly referred to as "sea scorpions".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/arthropoda/chelicerata/eurypterida.html |title=Eurypterida |accessdate=2008-06-13 |author=Ben Waggoner |publisher=Regents of the University of California}}</ref> Their legs are thought to have been short, thick, tapering and to have ended in a single strong claw; it appears that they were well-adapted for maintaining a secure hold upon rocks or seaweed against the wash of waves, like the legs of a [[shore crab]]. [[Cladistic]] analyses have supported the idea that the eurypterids are a distinct group from the scorpions.<ref name="Garwood">{{cite journal |author1=Russell Garwood |author2=Gregory Edgecombe |lastauthoramp=yes |year=2011 |title=''Early terrestrial animals, evolution and uncertainty'' |journal=[[Evolution, Education, and Outreach]] |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=489–501 |doi=10.1007/s12052-011-0357-y |url=http://www.academia.edu/891357/}}</ref>

==Morphology==
[[File:Scorpion anatomy.png|thumb|left|Scorpion anatomy:<br/> 1 = Cephalothorax or ''[[Prosoma]]'';<br/> 2 = Abdomen or ''[[Mesosoma]]'';<br/> 3 = Tail or ''[[Metasoma]]'';<br/> 4 = Claws or ''[[Pedipalp]]s''<br/> 5 = Legs;<br/> 6 = Mouth parts or ''[[Chelicerae]]'';<br/> 7 = pincers or [[Chelae]];<br/> 8 = Moveable claw or ''[[Tarsus (zoology)|Tarsus]]'';<br/> 9 = Fixed claw or ''[[Manus (skeleton)|Manus]]'';<br/> 10 = Stinger or ''Aculeus'';<br/>11 = ''[[Telson]]'' (follows anus in previous joint).]]
[[File:Androctonus australis 02.JPG|right|thumb|Front of scorpion|250px]]
[[File:ScorpionBarb.jpg|thumb|right|Stinger of an [[Arizona bark scorpion]]]]
[[File:Vista ventral de un escorpión.jpg|thumb|Ventral view of an unidentified scorpion species where the [[Pecten (biology)|pectines]] can easily be observed with a comb like structure in an inverted V shape.]]

The body of a scorpion is divided into two parts ([[Tagma (arthropod anatomy)|tagmata]]): the head ([[cephalothorax]]) and the [[abdomen]] ([[opisthosoma]]), which is subdivided into a broad anterior ([[mesosoma]]), or preabdomen, and a narrow tail-like posterior ([[metasoma]]), or postabdomen.<ref name="Biology"/>{{rp|10}}

===Cephalothorax===
The [[cephalothorax]], also called the ''[[prosoma]]'', comprises the [[carapace]], eyes, [[chelicerae]] (mouth parts), [[pedipalp]]s (the pedipalps of scorpions have [[chela (organ)|chelae]], commonly called claws or pincers) and four pairs of [[arthropod leg|walking legs]]. The scorpion's exoskeleton is thick and durable, providing good protection from predators. Scorpions have two eyes on the top of the cephalothorax, and usually two to five pairs of eyes along the front corners of the cephalothorax. While unable to form sharp images, their central eyes are amongst the most light sensitive in the animal kingdom, especially in dim light, and makes it possible for nocturnal species to use star light to navigate at night. Some species also have light receptions in their tail.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=wLiVDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA60&dq=%22scorpions+perceive+the+environment+through+visual,+tactile+and+chemical%22&hl=no&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjy4KzW4IHSAhUEAsAKHVEAAd4Q6AEIHDAA#v=onepage&q=%22scorpions%20perceive%20the%20environment%20through%20visual%2C%20tactile%20and%20chemical%22&f=false Arthropod Diversity and Conservation in the Tropics and Sub-tropics]</ref> The position of the eyes on the cephalothorax depends in part on the hardness or softness of the soil upon which they spend their lives.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://insects.tamu.edu/extension/bulletins/l-1678.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19990822042321/http://insects.tamu.edu:80/extension/bulletins/l-1678.html |dead-url=yes |archive-date=1999-08-22 |title=Department of Entomology |publisher=[[Texas A&M University]] |accessdate=2012-05-03 }}</ref>

The pedipalp is a segmented, chelate (clawed) [[appendage]] used for prey immobilization, defense and sensory purposes. The segments of the pedipalp (from closest to the body outwards) are coxa, trochanter, femur (humerus), patella, tibia (including the fixed claw and the manus) and tarsus (moveable claw).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wrbu.org/scorpions/sc_morphology/sc_glossary.html |title=WRBU Scorpion Identification |publisher=Wrbu.org |accessdate=2012-05-03}}</ref> A scorpion has darkened or granular raised linear ridges, called "keels" or ''carinae'' on the pedipalp segments and on other parts of the body, which are useful taxonomically.<ref name="Biology"/>{{rp|12}}

===Mesosoma===
The mesosoma is the broad part of the opisthosoma. Sometimes it is loosely called the ''[[abdomen]]''. It consists of the [[anterior]] seven [[somites]] (segments) of the opisthosoma, each covered [[dorsum (biology)|dorsally]] by a sclerotosed plate, its [[tergum|tergite]]. [[Anatomical terms of location#Dorsal and ventral|Ventral]]ly somites 3 to 7 are armoured with matching plates called [[Sternum (arthropod anatomy)|sternites]].

Ventrally somites 1 and 2 are more complex; the first abdominal sternite is modified into a pair of [[Wiktionary:genital|genital]] [[Operculum (animal)|opercula]] covering the [[gonopore]]. Sternite 2 forms the basal plate bearing the [[Pecten (biology)|pectines]]. [[Morphology (biology)|Morphologically]] the pectines are a pair of limbs that function as sensory organs.<ref>Knowlton ED, Gaffin DD (June, 2011) [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21647695 "Functionally redundant peg sensilla on the scorpion pecten"], ''NCBI''.</ref>

The next four somites, 3 to 6, each bears a pair of [[spiracles]]; they serve as openings for the scorpion's [[Respiratory system|respiratory]] organs, known as [[book lungs]]. The spiracle openings may be slits, circular, elliptical, or oval, according to the species of scorpion.<ref name="Biology"/>{{rp|13–15}}<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=rxZcCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA105&lpg=PA105&dq=%22Scorpions+respire+through+four+pairs+of+book+lungs+found+on+abdominal+segments+three+to+six+%22&source=bl&ots=YvDf-skY2B&sig=ckffBvdDZyqOy9dpcEL8ENfc4eA&hl=no&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwimr9rD6I3SAhWEhSwKHV2BA74Q6AEIHDAA#v=onepage&q=%22Scorpions%20respire%20through%20four%20pairs%20of%20book%20lungs%20found%20on%20abdominal%20segments%20three%20to%20six%20%22&f=false Evolutionary Developmental Biology of Invertebrates 3 Ecdysozoa I: Non-Tetraconata]</ref>

The 7th and last somite do not bear appendages or any other significant external structures.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=6OqeAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA15&dq=Mesosomal+segment+7+(somite+XVI)&hl=no&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjSpdqIhpLSAhUBrRQKHcpeBeIQ6AEIHjAA#v=onepage&q=Mesosomal%20segment%207%20(somite%20XVI)&f=false The Biology of Scorpions]</ref>

===Metasoma===
The metasoma is commonly known as the scorpion's "[[tail (anatomy)|tail]]", though this is in some ways misleading because unlike most so-called tails it is not an appendage or limb; it is in fact part of the [[opisthosoma]]. It comprises five segments, of which the fifth segment bears the [[telson]]. In many species it superficially seems as though the metasoma has four segments only, because their first ([[Anatomical terms of location#Anterior and posterior|anterior]]) metasomal segment gives the impression of being the [[Anatomical terms of location#Anterior and posterior|posterior]] segment of the mesosoma. The fifth segment of the metasoma is the caudal segment of the opisthosoma and accordingly bears the anus. The scorpion's telson is the part commonly called the stinger; it is attached to the end of the fifth segment just [[Anatomical terms of location#Other directional terms|dorsad]] from the anus, but as the distal end of the tail at rest normally is carried upside down with the sting pointing forward, the anus usually is above the base of the telson and facing upwards.<ref name="Polis1990">{{cite book|author=Gary A. Polis|title=The Biology of Scorpions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6OqeAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA9|year=1990|publisher=Stanford University Press|isbn=978-0-8047-1249-1|pages=9–}}</ref>

The scorpion's telson is the part commonly called the stinger; it includes the [[vesicle (biology)|vesicle]], containing a symmetrical pair of [[venom]] glands. Externally it bears the curved [[sting (biology)|sting]], the hypodermic aculeus or venom-injecting barb. It is equipped with various sensory hairs, as the sting cannot be guided visually. Each of the venom glands has its own duct to convey its secretion internally along the aculeus from the bulb of the gland to immediately subterminal of the point of the aculeus, where each of the paired ducts has its own venom pore. <ref name = "YNBM">Yigit, N. Benli, M. Fine structural analysis of the stinger in venom apparatus of the scorpion Euscorpius mingrelicus. J Venom Anim Toxins incl Trop Dis. V.16, n.1, p.76-86, 2010. ISSN 1678-9199.</ref>

On rare occasions, scorpions are born with two metasomata. Two-tailed scorpions are no more than examples of [[Adventitiousness|adventitious]] [[Ontogeny|ontogenic]] [[Teratology|abnormality]]. Whether there ever is a [[Genetics|genetic]] component to the condition is uncertain, but such evidence as is available from offspring is negative so far as no two-tailed scorpions have been observed among the rarely-observed progeny of multiple-tailed scorpion specimens.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sasionline.org/pepe.htm |title=Pepe the Two Tailed Scorpion |accessdate=2008-06-13 |author=Steve Prchal |publisher=Sonoran Arthropod Studies Institute |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516113832/http://www.sasionline.org/pepe.htm |archivedate=May 16, 2008 }}</ref>

==Fluorescence==
[[File:Sorpion Under Blacklight edit.jpg|thumb|This black scorpion appears light-blue under a [[black light]].]]

Scorpions are also known to glow a vibrant blue-green when exposed to certain wavelengths of [[ultraviolet]] light such as that produced by a [[black light]], due to the presence of fluorescent chemicals in the cuticle. One fluorescent component is now known to be [[beta-carboline]].<ref name="Stachel 1999 531–539">{{cite journal |author=Shawn J Stachel, Scott A Stockwell and David L Van Vranken |date=August 1999 |title=The fluorescence of scorpions and cataractogenesis |journal=[[Chemistry and Biology (journal)|Chemistry & Biology]] |volume=6 |pages=531–539 |doi=10.1016/S1074-5521(99)80085-4 |pmid=10421760 |issue=8}}</ref> A hand-held UV lamp has long been a standard tool for nocturnal field surveys of these animals. Fluorescence occurs as a result of [[sclerite|sclerotisation]] and increases in intensity with each successive [[instar]].<ref name="Stachel 1999 531–539"/> This fluorescence may have an active role in scorpion light detection.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Douglas D. Gaffinr, Lloyd A. Bumm, Matthew S. Taylor, Nataliya V. Popokina & Shivani Mann |year=2012 |title=Scorpion fluorescence and reaction to light |journal=[[Animal Behaviour (journal)|Animal Behaviour]] |issue=2|doi=10.1016/j.anbehav.2011.11.014 |volume=83 |pages=429–436}}</ref>

==Biology==
{{Refimprove section|date=April 2011}}
Scorpions prefer areas where the temperatures range from {{convert|20|to|37|C|F}}, but may survive temperatures ranging from well below freezing to desert heat.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Neil F. Hadley |year=1970 |title=Water relations of the desert scorpion, ''Hadrurus arizonensis'' |journal=[[Journal of Experimental Biology]] |volume=53 |pages=547–558 |url=http://jeb.biologists.org/cgi/reprint/53/3/547.pdf |pmid=5487163 |issue=3}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=K. Hoshino; A. T. V. Moura and H. M. G. De Paula |lastauthoramp=yes |year=2006 |title=Selection of environmental temperature by the yellow scorpion ''Tityus serrulatus'' Lutz & Mello, 1922 (Scorpiones, Buthidae) |journal=[[Journal of Venomous Animals and Toxins]] ''including'' Tropical Diseases |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=59–66 |doi=10.1590/S1678-91992006000100005}}</ref> Scorpions of the genus ''[[Scorpiops]]'' living in high Asian mountains, [[Bothriuridae|bothriurid]] scorpions from [[Patagonia]] and small ''[[Euscorpius]]'' scorpions from Central Europe can all survive winter temperatures of about {{convert|−25|C|F}}. In [[Repetek Biosphere State Reserve|Repetek]] ([[Turkmenistan]]), seven species of scorpion (of which ''Pectinibuthus birulai'' is [[endemism|endemic]]) live in temperatures varying from {{convert|-31|to|50|C|F}}.<ref>{{cite book |author=František Kovařík |year=1998 |title=Štíři |trans_title=Scorpions |language=Czech |location=Jihlava |publisher=Madagaskar |isbn=978-80-86068-10-7 |page=19}}</ref>

They are [[nocturnal]] and [[fossorial]], finding shelter during the day in the relative cool of underground holes or undersides of rocks, and emerging at night to hunt and feed. Scorpions exhibit [[photophobia (biology)|photophobic]] behavior, primarily to evade detection by predators such as birds, centipedes, lizards, mice, opossums, and rats.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://amonline.net.au/factsheets/scorpions.htm |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090302191244/http://amonline.net.au/factsheets/scorpions.htm |archivedate=2009-03-02 |title=Scorpions |accessdate=2008-06-13 |publisher=Australian Museum}}</ref>

Scorpions are opportunistic predators of small arthropods, although the larger kinds have been known to kill small lizards and mice. The large pincers are studded with highly sensitive tactile hair, and the moment an insect touches these, they use their chelae (pincers) to catch the prey. Depending on the toxicity of their venom and size of their claws, they will then either crush the prey or inject it with [[neurotoxic]] venom. This will kill or paralyze the prey so the scorpion can eat it. Scorpions have an unusual style of eating using [[chelicerae]], small claw-like structures that protrude from the mouth that are unique to the [[Chelicerata]] among arthropods. The chelicerae, which are very sharp, are used to pull small amounts of food off the prey item for digestion into a ''pre-oral cavity'' below the chelicerae and carapace. Scorpions can ingest food only in a liquid form; they have external digestion. The digestive juices from the gut are egested onto the food and the digested food sucked in liquid form. Any solid indigestible matter (fur, [[exoskeleton]], etc.) is trapped by setae in the pre-oral cavity, which is ejected by the scorpion.<ref name="Biology"/>{{rp|296–297}}

Scorpions can consume huge amounts of food at one sitting. They have a very efficient food storage organ and a very low metabolic rate combined with a relatively inactive lifestyle. This enables scorpions to survive long periods when deprived of food; some are able to survive 6 to 12 months of starvation.<ref name="Biology"/>{{rp|297–298}} Scorpions excrete very little; their waste consists mostly of insoluble nitrogenous compounds, such as [[xanthine]], [[guanine]] and [[uric acid]].<ref name="Earthlife"/>

===Reproduction===
Most scorpions reproduce sexually, and most species have male and female individuals. However, some species, such as ''[[Hottentotta hottentotta]]'', ''[[Hottentotta caboverdensis]]'', ''[[Liocheles australasiae]]'', ''[[Tityus columbianus]]'', ''[[Tityus metuendus]]'', ''[[Tityus serrulatus]]'', ''[[Tityus stigmurus]]'', ''[[Tityus trivittatus]]'' and ''[[Tityus urugayensis]]'', reproduce through [[parthenogenesis]], a process in which unfertilised eggs develop into living [[embryo]]s. Parthenogenic reproduction starts following the scorpion's final moult to maturity and continues thereafter.

Sexual reproduction is accomplished by the transfer of a [[spermatophore]] from the male to the female; scorpions possess a complex [[courtship]] and [[mating]] ritual to effect this transfer. Mating starts with the male and female locating and identifying each other using a mixture of [[pheromones]] and [[oscillation|vibrational]] communication. Once they have satisfied the other that they are of opposite sex and of the correct species, mating can commence.

The courtship starts with the male grasping the female's pedipalps with his own; the pair then perform a "dance" called the "''promenade à deux''". In this "dance", the male leads the female around searching for a suitable place to deposit his [[spermatophore]]. The courtship ritual can involve several other behaviours, such as [[juddering]] and a cheliceral kiss, in which the male's [[chelicerae]] – pincers – grasp the female's in a smaller more intimate version of the male's grasping the female's pedipalps and in some cases injecting a small amount of his venom into her pedipalp or on the edge of her cephalothorax,<ref>{{cite book |author=Cleveland P. Hickman Jr.; Larry S. Roberts, Allan Larson, Helen I'Anson, David Eisenhour |lastauthoramp=yes |title=Integrated Principles of Zoology |edition=13 |date=2005-02-01 |publisher=McGraw-Hill Science/Engineering/Math |isbn=978-0-07-310174-3 |page=380}}</ref> probably as a means of pacifying the female.

[[File:Pregnant scorpion.jpg|thumb|Pregnant scorpion]]
When the male has identified a suitable location, he deposits the spermatophore and then guides the female over it. This allows the spermatophore to enter her genital [[operculum (animal)|opercula]], which triggers release of the sperm, thus fertilising the female. The mating process can take from 1 to 25+ hours and depends on the ability of the male to find a suitable place to deposit his spermatophore. If mating continues too long, the female may lose interest, ending the process.

Once the mating is complete, the male and female will separate. The male will generally retreat quickly, most likely to avoid being cannibalized by the female, although [[sexual cannibalism]] is infrequent with scorpions.

===Birth and development===
[[File:scorpionwithyoung.JPG|right|thumb|''[[Compsobuthus werneri]]'' female with [[Offspring|young]]]]
Unlike the majority of species in the class [[Arachnid]]a, which are [[oviparous]], scorpions seem to be universally [[ovoviviparous]]. The young are born one by one after hatching and expelling the embryonic membrane, if any, and the brood is carried about on its mother's back until the young have undergone at least one [[ecdysis|moult]]. Before the first moult, scorplings cannot survive naturally without the mother, since they depend on her for protection and to regulate their moisture levels. Especially in species that display more advanced sociability (e.g. ''[[Pandinus]]'' spp.), the young/mother association can continue for an extended period of time. The size of the litter depends on the species and environmental factors, and can range from two to over a hundred scorplings. The average litter however, consists of around 8 scorplings.<ref>{{cite book |author=W. R. Lourenco |title=European Arachnology|chapter=Reproduction in scorpions, with special reference to parthenogenesis |year=2000|editor1=S. Toft |editor2=N. Scharff |publisher=Aarhus University Press|isbn=877934 0016|pages=71–85 |url=http://www.european-arachnology.org/proceedings/19th/Lourenco.PDF}}</ref>

The young generally resemble their parents. Growth is accomplished by periodic shedding of the exoskeleton ([[ecdysis]]). A scorpion's developmental progress is measured in [[instars]] (how many moults it has undergone). Scorpions typically require between five and seven moults to reach maturity. Moulting commences with a split in the old [[exoskeleton]] just below the edge of the carapace (at the front of the prosoma). The scorpion then emerges from this split; the pedipalps and legs are first removed from the old exoskeleton, followed eventually by the [[metasoma]]. When it emerges, the scorpion's new [[exoskeleton]] is soft, making the scorpion highly vulnerable to attack. The scorpion must constantly stretch while the new exoskeleton hardens to ensure that it can move when the hardening is complete. The process of hardening is called [[sclerotisation]]. The new exoskeleton does not fluoresce; as sclerotisation occurs, the fluorescence gradually returns.

{{anchor|In culture}}

==Relationship with humans==

===Sting and venom===
All known scorpion species possess venom and use it primarily to kill or paralyze their prey so that it can be eaten. In general, it is fast-acting, allowing for effective prey capture. However, as a general rule, they will kill their prey with brute force if they can, as opposed to using venom. It is also used as a defense against predators. The venom is a mixture of compounds (neurotoxins, enzyme inhibitors, etc.) each not only causing a different effect but possibly also targeting a specific animal. Each compound is made and stored in a pair of glandular sacs and is released in a quantity regulated by the scorpion itself. Of the 1,000+ known species of scorpion, only 25 have venom that is deadly to humans; most of those belong to the family [[Buthidae]] (including ''[[Leiurus quinquestriatus]]'', ''[[Hottentotta]]'', ''[[Centruroides]]'' and ''[[Androctonus]]'').<ref name="Earthlife"/><ref>{{cite web|title = ThinkQuest: Poisonous Animals: Scorpions| url=http://library.thinkquest.org/C007974/2_4sco.htm | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20050403212450/http://library.thinkquest.org/C007974/2_4sco.htm | archivedate=2005-04-03 |year=2000 |accessdate =December 16, 2009}}</ref>

==== Prevention ====
According to the United States [[National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health]] (NIOSH), the following steps should be taken to prevent scorpion stings:<ref name="niosh">{{cite web | url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/insects/scorpions.html | title=Insects and scorpions | publisher=[[NIOSH]] | date=1 July 2016 | accessdate=15 July 2016}} – ''text copied from this public-domain source: public domain, PD-USGov''</ref>
*Wearing long sleeves and trousers
*Wearing leather gloves
*Shaking out clothing or shoes before putting them on.
*Workers with a history of severe allergic reactions to insect bites or stings should consider carrying an epinephrine auto injector (EpiPen) and should wear a medical identification bracelet or necklace stating their allergy.

====Treatment====
[[First aid]] for scorpion stings is generally [[Symptomatic treatment|symptomatic]]. It includes strong [[Analgesic|analgesia]], either systemic ([[opiate]]s or [[paracetamol]]) or locally applied (such as a [[Cold compression therapy|cold compress]]). [[Hypertensive emergency|Hypertensive crises]] are treated with [[anxiolytic]]s and [[Vasodilation|vasodilators]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Adriaan Hopperus Buma, David G. Burris, Alan Hawley, James M. Ryan & Peter F. Mahoney |year=2009 |title=Conflict and Catastrophe Medicine: A Practical Guide |edition=2nd |publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-84800-351-4 |chapter=Scorpion sting |page=518 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q-kk_TX9Ji0C&pg=PA518}}</ref> Scorpion envenomation with high morbidity and mortality is usually due to either excessive autonomic activity and cardiovascular toxic effects or neuromuscular toxic effects. Antivenom is the specific treatment for scorpion envenomation combined with supportive measures including vasodilators in patients with cardiovascular toxic effects and benzodiazepines when there is neuromuscular involvement. Although rare, severe hypersensitivity reactions including anaphylaxis to scorpion antivenin (SAV) are possible.<ref name="10.4103/0972-5229.164807">{{cite journal |author1=Bhoite RR |author2=Bhoite GR |author3=Bagdure DN |author4=Bawaskar HS |title=Anaphylaxis to scorpion antivenin and its management following envenomation by Indian red scorpion, Mesobuthus tamulus |journal=[[Indian Journal of Critical Care Medicine]] |volume=19 |issue=9 |pages=547–549 |year=2015 |doi= 10.4103/0972-5229.164807}}</ref>

====Medical use====
[[File:Deathstalker ST 07.JPG|thumb|The [[deathstalker]] has powerful venom.]]
Short-chain scorpion toxins constitute the largest group of [[potassium]] (K<sup>+</sup>) channel blocking peptides; an important physiological role of the [[KCNA3]] channel, also known as K<sub>V</sub>1.3, is to help maintain large electrical gradients for the sustained transport of ions such as Ca<sup>2+</sup> that controls [[T lymphocyte]] (T cell) proliferation. Thus K<sub>V</sub>1.3 blockers could be potential [[immunosuppressant]]s for the treatment of autoimmune disorders (such as rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease and multiple sclerosis).<ref name="pmid15120495">{{cite journal |author=K. George Chandy, Heike Wulff, Christine Beeton, Michael Pennington, George A. Gutman & Michael D. Cahalan |title=K<sup>+</sup> channels as targets for specific immunomodulation |journal=[[Trends in Pharmacological Sciences]] |volume=25 |issue=5 |pages=280–289 |date=May 2004 |doi=10.1016/j.tips.2004.03.010 |pmid=15120495 |pmc=2749963}}</ref>

The venom of ''[[Uroplectes lineatus]]'' is clinically important in [[dermatology]].<ref name="Bolognia">{{cite book |author1=Rapini, Ronald P. |author2=Bolognia, Jean L. |author3=Jorizzo, Joseph L. |title=Dermatology: 2-Volume Set |publisher=Mosby |location=St. Louis |year=2007 |page=1315 |isbn=1-4160-2999-0}}</ref>

Toxins being investigated include the following:
* [[Chlorotoxin]] is a 36–[[amino acid]] [[peptide]] found in the [[venom]] of the [[Deathstalker|deathstalker scorpion]] (''Leiurus quinquestriatus'') that blocks small-conductance [[chloride channel]]s.<ref name="pmid1726031">{{cite journal |author1=J. A. DeBin |author2=G. R. Strichartz |lastauthoramp=yes |title=Chloride channel inhibition by the venom of the scorpion Leiurus quinquestriatus |journal=[[Toxicon]] |volume=29 |issue=11 |pages=1403–1408 |year=1991 |pmid=1726031 |doi= 10.1016/0041-0101(91)90128-E}}</ref> The fact that chlorotoxin binds preferentially to [[glioma]] cells has allowed the development of new methods, that still are under investigation, for the treatment and diagnosis of several types of cancer.<ref name="pmid12454020">{{cite journal |author=Jessy Deshane, Craig C. Garner & Harald Sontheimer |title=Chlorotoxin inhibits glioma cell invasion via matrix metalloproteinase-2 |journal=[[Journal of Biological Chemistry]] |volume=278 |issue=6 |pages=4135–4144 |year=2003 |pmid=12454020 |doi=10.1074/jbc.M205662200}}</ref>
* [[Maurotoxin]] from the venom of the Tunisian ''[[Scorpio maurus]]''<ref>{{cite journal |author=E. Carlier, S. Geib, M. De Waard, V. Avdonin, T. Hoshi, Z. Fajloun, H. Rochat, J.-M. Sabatier & R. Kharrat |year=2000 |title=Effect of maurotoxin, a four disulfide-bridged toxin from the chactoid scorpion ''Scorpio maurus'', on ''Shaker'' K<sup>+</sup> channels |journal=[[The Journal of Peptide Research]] |volume=55 |issue=6 |pages=419–427 |pmid=10888198 |doi=10.1034/j.1399-3011.2000.00715.x}}</ref>
* A number of [[antimicrobial peptide]]s have also been found in the venom of ''[[Mesobuthus eupeus]]''. Meucin-13 and meucin-18 exhibited extensive [[cytolytic]] effects on bacteria, fungi, and yeasts.<ref name=pmid19088182>{{Cite journal | pmid = 19088182 | year = 2009 | author=Bin Gao, Patrick Sherman, Lan Luo, John Bowie & Shunyi Zhu | title = Structural and functional characterization of two genetically related meucin peptides highlights evolutionary divergence and convergence in antimicrobial peptides | volume = 23 | issue = 4 |pages=1230–1245 | doi = 10.1096/fj.08-122317 | journal = FASEB Journal}}</ref> Furthermore, meucin-24 and meucin-25, first identified from genetic sequences expressed in their venom gland, were shown to selectively kill ''[[Plasmodium falciparum]]'' and inhibit the development of ''[[Plasmodium berghei]]'', both [[malaria]] parasites, but do not harm mammalian cells. These two venom-derived proteins are therefore attractive candidates for the development of [[Antimalarial medication|anti-malarial drugs]].<ref name=pmid20097251>{{Cite journal | pmid = 20097251 | year = 2010 |author=Bin Gao, Jia Xu, Maria del Carmen Rodriguez, Humberto Lanz-Mendoza, Rosaura Hernández-Rivas, Weihong Du & Shunyi Zhu | title = Characterization of two linear cationic antimalarial peptides in the scorpion ''Mesobuthus eupeus'' | volume = 92 | issue = 4 | pages=350–359 | doi = 10.1016/j.biochi.2010.01.011 | journal = Biochimie }}</ref>

=====Production=====
Scorpions for use in the pharmaceutical industry are collected from the wild in [[Pakistan]]. Farmers in the [[Thatta District]] are paid about US$100 for each 40 gram scorpion and 60 gram specimens are reported to fetch at least US$50,000.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Javaid|first1=Maham|title=The scorpion hunters of Pakistan|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2014/10/scorpion-hunters-pakistan-sindh-2014106135152297494.html|publisher=Al Jazeera|date=8 October 2014|accessdate=3 July 2015}}</ref> The trade is reported to be illegal but thriving.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Ilyas|first1=Faiza|title=Wildlife dept moves after months of illegal scorpion hunting across country|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1120728|accessdate=3 July 2015|work=[[DAWN (newspaper)]]|date=22 July 2014}}</ref>

===Consumption===
[[File:Eating scorpions.jpg|thumb|left|Eating scorpions in [[Beijing]], China]]
Fried scorpion is a traditional dish from [[Shandong cuisine|Shandong]], [[Chinese cuisine|China]].<ref>Matthew Forney (June 11, 2008) [https://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/11/dining/11china.html Scorpions for Breakfast and Snails for Dinner], ''The New York Times''.</ref>

Scorpion and [[snake wine|snake]] [[tincture|wines]] are used as [[analgesic]]s.{{citation needed|date=June 2016}}

===In culture===
[[File:Scorpion kilim motif.jpg|thumb|upright=0.6|[[Kilim motifs|Scorpion motif]] is often woven into Turkish [[kilim]] flatweave carpets, for protection from their sting (2 examples).]]

*One of earliest occurrences of the scorpion in culture is its inclusion, as ''[[Scorpio (astrology)|Scorpio]]'', in the twelve signs of the series of constellations known as the [[Zodiac]] by [[Babylonian astronomy|Babylonian astronomers]] during the [[Neo-Babylonian|Chaldean period]].<ref name="Biology"/>{{rp|462}}
*In South Africa and South Asia, the scorpion is a significant animal culturally, appearing as a [[Motif (visual arts)|motif]] in art, especially in [[Islamic art]] in the Middle East.<ref name="Frembgen">{{cite journal |author=Jürgen Wasim Frembgen |year=2004 |title=The scorpion in Muslim folklore |journal=[[Asian Folklore Studies]] |volume=63 |issue=1 |pages=95–123 |url=http://nirc.nanzan-u.ac.jp/nfile/631 |format=PDF}}</ref> A [[Kilim motifs|scorpion motif]] is often woven into Turkish [[kilim]] flatweave carpets, for protection from their sting.<ref name=Erbek>{{cite book |author=Erbek, Güran |title=Kilim Catalogue No. 1 |publisher =May Selçuk A. S. Edition=1st |date=1998}}</ref> The scorpion is perceived both as an embodiment of evil and a protective force that counters evil, such as a [[dervish]]'s powers to combat evil.<ref name="Frembgen"/> In another context, the scorpion portrays [[human sexuality]].<ref name="Frembgen"/> Scorpions are used in folk medicine in South Asia especially in [[antidote]]s for scorpion stings.<ref name="Frembgen"/>
*In [[ancient Egypt]] the goddess [[Serket]] was often depicted as a scorpion, one of several goddesses who protected the [[Pharaoh]].
*[[Surrealism|Surrealist]] [[filmmaker]] [[Luis Buñuel]] makes notable symbolic use of scorpions in his 1930 classic ''[[L'Age d'or]]'' (''The Golden Age'').<ref>{{cite book |author=Allen S. Weiss |chapter=Between the sign of the scorpion and the sign of the cross: ''L’Age d'or'' |pages=159–175 |editor=Rudolf E. Kuenzli |year=1996 |title=Dada and Surrealist Film |publisher=[[MIT Press]] |isbn=978-0-262-61121-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZDl6HsqFJwAC&pg=PA159}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Biology|Arthropods}}
*''[[Palaeophonus]]'', a Devonian scorpion
*''[[Paraisobuthus]]'', a Carboniferous scorpion
*[[List of scorpions of Australia]]

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

==External links==
*{{cite web|title=Diseases and Conditions – Scorpion stings|url=http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/scorpion-stings/basics/definition/con-20033894|publisher=[[Mayo Clinic]]}}
{{Wikispecies|Scorpiones}}
{{Commons+cat|Scorpion|Scorpiones}}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.scorpsweep.com/facts |title=Scorpion Facts for Researchers and Kids |last=Holland |first=Ben |year=2008}}
*[http://www.ub.ntnu.no/scorpion-files/scorpion_anatomy.jpg Scorpion anatomy]
*{{cite web |url=http://www.desertusa.com/oct96/du_scorpion.html |title=Scorpions |publisher=DesertUSA.com and Digital West Media, Inc.}}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.spidy.goliathus.com/english/gallery-scorpions.php |title=Photogallery – 36 species of scorpions |last=Rehak |first=Ondrej}}
*{{cite news |first=Robert Roy |last=Britt |title=Scorpion Venom Tested as Brain Cancer Treatment |url=http://www.livescience.com/health/060627_scorpion_venom.html |work=LiveScience |publisher=[[Imaginova]] |date=June 27, 2006}}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.scorpionpictureguide.com/ |title=Pet Scorpion Information and facts &#124; Scorpion Picture Guide}}
*[http://www.desert-scorpions.com/ Scorpions from the Chihuahuan Desert Region of Mexico and the United States]
*[https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/insects/ CDC – Insects and Scorpions – NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topic]
*[http://scorpiones.pl/maps/ Scorpions distribution maps]
{{Arachnida}}

{{Authority control}}
{{taxonbar}}

[[Category:Scorpions| ]]
[[Category:Living fossils]]
[[Category:Living fossils]]
[[Category:Wenlock first appearances]]
[[Category:Wenlock first appearances]]

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