European corn borer: Difference between revisions
This was a major edit. I added the following sections: geographical range, climate change, life cycle, eggs, diapause, parental care, ovipositon, male investment, host plants, pest of crop plants, mutualism, mating, voltinism, polyandry, sex pheromones |
|||
| Line 31: | Line 31: | ||
*''Pyrausta nubilalis f. fanalis'' <small> Costantini, 1923</small> |
*''Pyrausta nubilalis f. fanalis'' <small> Costantini, 1923</small> |
||
}} |
}} |
||
| ⚫ | |||
Adult moth |
|||
]] |
|||
| ⚫ | The '''European corn worm''' or '''European corn borer''' (''Ostrinia nubilalis''), also known as the European high-flyer, is a pest of grain, particularly [[maize]]. The insect is native to [[Europe]], originally infesting varieties of [[millet]], including [[broom corn]]. The European corn borer was first reported in North America in 1917 in [[Massachusetts]], but was probably introduced from Europe several years earlier.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.108390|title=Details - A progress report on the investigations of the European corn borer / - Biodiversity Heritage Library|last=Caffrey|first=D. J.|last2=Worthley|first2=L. H.|language=en|doi=10.5962/bhl.title.108390}}</ref> Since its initial discovery in the Americas, the insect has spread into [[Canada]] and westward across the [[United States]] to the [[Rocky Mountains]]. |
||
European corn borer caterpillars damage the ears of corn, as well as the stalks, by chewing tunnels, which cause the plants to fall over. In the United States, the economic impact from corn crop yield losses and population control expenses exceeds $1 billion annually.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ent.iastate.edu/pest/cornborer/insect|title=The European Corn Borer {{!}} The European Corn Borer|website=www.ent.iastate.edu|access-date=2017-10-25}}</ref> |
|||
| ⚫ | The '''European corn worm''' or '''European corn borer''' (''Ostrinia nubilalis''), also known as the European high-flyer, is a pest of grain, particularly [[maize]]. The insect is native to [[Europe]], originally infesting varieties of [[millet]], including [[broom corn]]. The European corn borer was first reported in North America in 1917 in [[Massachusetts]], but was probably introduced from Europe several years earlier. Since its initial discovery in the Americas, the insect has spread into [[Canada]] and westward across the [[United States]] to the [[Rocky Mountains]]. |
||
[[Biological control]] agents of corn borers include the hymenopteran parasitoid ''[[Trichogramma]]'' spp., the fungus ''[[Beauveria bassiana]]'' and the protozoa ''[[Nosema pyrausta]]''. |
|||
''Bt'' corn, a variety of [[genetically modified maize]], has had its genome modified to include a gene from the ''[[Bacillus thuringiensis]]'' ssp. ''kurstaki''. As a result, the corn variety produces a protein that kills Lepidoptera larvae, in particular European corn borer.<ref>University of Kentucky Extension Service [http://www2.ca.uky.edu/entomology/entfacts/ef130.asp Bt Corn - What it is and how it works]</ref> |
''Bt'' corn, a variety of [[genetically modified maize]], has had its genome modified to include a gene from the ''[[Bacillus thuringiensis]]'' ssp. ''kurstaki''. As a result, the corn variety produces a protein that kills Lepidoptera larvae, in particular European corn borer.<ref>University of Kentucky Extension Service [http://www2.ca.uky.edu/entomology/entfacts/ef130.asp Bt Corn - What it is and how it works]</ref> |
||
| Line 45: | Line 49: | ||
Female corn borer moths lay clusters of eggs on corn leaves, usually on the undersides. The egg masses, or clusters, are laid in an overlapping configuration and are whitish-yellow in color. As the larvae develop inside their eggs, the eggs become more and more transparent and the immature caterpillar black heads are eventually visible. The caterpillars hatch by chewing their way out of the eggs. |
Female corn borer moths lay clusters of eggs on corn leaves, usually on the undersides. The egg masses, or clusters, are laid in an overlapping configuration and are whitish-yellow in color. As the larvae develop inside their eggs, the eggs become more and more transparent and the immature caterpillar black heads are eventually visible. The caterpillars hatch by chewing their way out of the eggs. |
||
== Geographic range == |
|||
The European corn borer (''Ostrinia nubilalis'') is native to Europe and was introduced to North America in the early 20<sup>th</sup> century.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Martel|first=C.|last2=Réjasse|first2=A.|last3=Rousset|first3=F.|last4=Bethenod|first4=M.-T.|last5=Bourguet|first5=D.|date=2003|title=Host-plant-associated genetic differentiation in Northern French populations of the European corn borer|url=http://www.nature.com/hdy/journal/v90/n2/full/6800186a.html|journal=Heredity|language=en|volume=90|issue=2|pages=141–149|doi=10.1038/sj.hdy.6800186|issn=0018-067X}}</ref> This moth plagues corn crops in France Spain, Italy, and Poland. In North America, ECBs are found in Eastern Canada and every state in the United States east of the Rocky Mountains.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ent.iastate.edu/pest/cornborer/insect|title=The European Corn Borer {{!}} The European Corn Borer|website=www.ent.iastate.edu|access-date=2017-10-25}}</ref> |
|||
=== Climate change === |
|||
With the increase in temperature in much of central and Eastern Europe associated with climate change, it is predicted that the habitable region of the European corn borer will expand further affecting agricultural crops. Additionally, an increase in the number of generations is expected. The CLIMEX model predicts that the area of arable land that will be affected by the European corn borer in Europe will increase by 61%.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kocmánková|first=E.|last2=Trnka|first2=M.|last3=Eitzinger|first3=J.|last4=Dubrovský|first4=M.|last5=Štěpánek|first5=P.|last6=Semerádová|first6=D.|last7=Balek|first7=J.|last8=Skalák|first8=P.|last9=Farda|first9=A.|date=2011/04|title=Estimating the impact of climate change on the occurrence of selected pests at a high spatial resolution: a novel approach|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-agricultural-science/article/estimating-the-impact-of-climate-change-on-the-occurrence-of-selected-pests-at-a-high-spatial-resolution-a-novel-approach/5E4384AF801B8CFE6A0BAB860906E5FB|journal=The Journal of Agricultural Science|volume=149|issue=2|pages=185–195|doi=10.1017/s0021859610001140|issn=1469-5146}}</ref> |
|||
== Life cycle == |
|||
The European corn borer progresses through four developmental stages. These are the egg, larva, pupa, and adult. The larval stage is when the insect is referred to as a borer and the adult stage is a moth. The adult moths lay their eggs on corn plants. Larva hatch from the eggs. Within the larval/borer stage are five instars or sub-stages of development. The larval stage is followed by a period of diapause or hibernation in a pupa. During the pupal stage, the borers progress through metamorphosis in a suspended chrysalis. Following this intense period of development, an adult moth emerges from the pupa. The length of the pupal stage is determined by environmental factors such as temperature, number of light hours, and larval nutrition in addition to genetics.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ent.iastate.edu/pest/cornborer/insect/lifecycle|title=Life Cycle and Generational Ecotypes of the European Corn Borer {{!}} The European Corn Borer|website=www.ent.iastate.edu|access-date=2017-10-25}}</ref> |
|||
The bivoltine populations of European corn borers undergo the pupal stage twice during the spring months, first in May-June and then again in July-August. During the colder winter months, the European corn borer stays in its larval stage. Temperatures exceeding 50 degrees Fahrenheit induce the other developmental stages. During these warmer months, the North American corn crop is growing and provides a food source for the borers.<ref name=":1" /> |
|||
=== Eggs === |
|||
A female moth can lay two egg masses per night for 10 nights. The number of eggs per egg mass decreases each day with a majority of eggs laid before the seventh night. The female lays white eggs which then become pale yellow and finally translucent before hatching. The eggs hatch within three to seven days of oviposition.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Phelan|first=P. L.|last2=Norris|first2=K. H.|last3=Mason|first3=J. F.|date=1996-12-01|title=Soil-Management History and Host Preference by Ostrinia nubilalis: Evidence for Plant Mineral Balance Mediating Insect–Plant Interactions|url=https://academic.oup.com/ee/article/25/6/1329/367318/Soil-Management-History-and-Host-Preference-by|journal=Environmental Entomology|volume=25|issue=6|pages=1329–1336|doi=10.1093/ee/25.6.1329|issn=0046-225X}}</ref> |
|||
=== Diapause === |
|||
Diapause, also known as hibernation, in European corn borers is induced by temperature and changes in number of daylight hours. At higher temperatures, shorter photoperiods are sufficient to induce diapause. At 13.5 hours of light followed by 10.5 hours of dark, 100% of ECB larva entered diapause regardless of temperature with the range of 18 to 29 degrees Celsius. At high temperatures and long photoperiods, fewer larva enter diapause.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Beck|first=S.D.|last2=Hanec|first2=W.|title=Diapause in the European corn borer, Pyrausta nubilalis (Hübn.)|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1910(60)90056-1|journal=Journal of Insect Physiology|volume=4|issue=4|pages=304–318|doi=10.1016/0022-1910(60)90056-1}}</ref> |
|||
== Mating == |
|||
=== Voltinism === |
|||
The original European corn borers introduced to North America in the early 20<sup>th</sup> century established a population in New York. These populations were univoltine, meaning they produce one brood per year. A second population of European corn borers was introduced in Massachusetts and spread to Long Island and the Hudson River Valley. This second population is bivoltine and produces two broods per year.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Glover|first=T. J.|last2=Tang|first2=X.-H.|last3=Roelofs|first3=W. L.|date=1987-01-01|title=Sex pheromone blend discrimination by male moths fromE andZ strains of European corn borer|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF01020358|journal=Journal of Chemical Ecology|language=en|volume=13|issue=1|pages=143–151|doi=10.1007/BF01020358|issn=0098-0331}}</ref> |
|||
=== Polyandry === |
|||
If presented with the opportunity, female European corn borers, like most moths, mate with multiple males in a reproductive strategy known as polyandry. Polyandry produces several benefits to female European corn borers. Mutiple matings increase female fecundity and longevity, because female moths receive both nutritional resources and multiple spermatophores from males. Mating with multiple males ensures that the female receives enough sperm to completely fertilize her eggs. Additionally, mating with multiple males increases the reproductive fitness of females, because it increases the genetic diversity of the female’s offspring making it more likely that at least some of them will mate in the future and pass on her genes.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fadamiro|first=Henry Y|last2=Baker|first2=Thomas C|title=Reproductive performance and longevity of female European corn borer, Ostrinia nubilalis: effects of multiple mating, delay in mating, and adult feeding|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-1910(98)00137-1|journal=Journal of Insect Physiology|volume=45|issue=4|pages=385–392|doi=10.1016/s0022-1910(98)00137-1}}</ref> |
|||
=== Sex pheromones === |
|||
Female calling behavior in European corn borers involves the extrusion of the pheromone gland and release of sex pheromones. This calling behavior is influenced by the circadian rhythm of the moth and tends to occur at night. Higher humidity also induces the calling behavior, while desiccation or drying out of the moths decreases calling behavior.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Royer|first=L.|last2=McNeil|first2=J. N.|date=1991-11-01|title=Changes in calling behaviour and mating success in the European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis), caused by relative humidity|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1570-7458.1991.tb02405.x/abstract|journal=Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata|language=en|volume=61|issue=2|pages=131–138|doi=10.1111/j.1570-7458.1991.tb02405.x|issn=1570-7458}}</ref> |
|||
There are two strains of European corn borers that are defined by their sex pheromone communication variant. These strains are the Z and E strains named after the stereochemistry of the predominant isomer of 11-tetradecenyl acetate that these moths produce.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Glover|first=T. J.|last2=Tang|first2=X.-H.|last3=Roelofs|first3=W. L.|date=1987-01-01|title=Sex pheromone blend discrimination by male moths fromE andZ strains of European corn borer|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF01020358|journal=Journal of Chemical Ecology|language=en|volume=13|issue=1|pages=143–151|doi=10.1007/BF01020358|issn=0098-0331}}</ref> |
|||
The E variant of pheromone has a trans- configuration of hydrogen molecules around its double bond, while the Z variant has a cis- configuration. The Z strain produces a 97:3 ratio of Z to E isomer pheromone while the E strain produces a 4:96 ratio of Z to E isomer pheromone. A mixture of isomers is much more efficient at producing flight in a particular direction in both the Z and E strain as compared to a single component alone. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Klun|first=J. A.|date=1975-12-01|title=Insect Sex Pheromones: Intraspecific Pheromonal Variability of Ostrinia nubilalis1 in North America and Europe2|url=https://doi.org/10.1093/ee/4.6.891|journal=Environmental Entomology|language=en|volume=4|issue=6|pages=891–894|doi=10.1093/ee/4.6.891|issn=0046-225X}}</ref><ref name=":2" /> |
|||
== Parental care == |
|||
=== Oviposition === |
|||
The female European corn borer moth lays eggs first in June. The eggs are laid on the underside of corn plant leaves near the midvein. Oviposition forms a relatively normal distribution with 87.1% of egg masses laid on the leaf just below the primary ear leaf and an equal number of egg masses laid above and below this leaf with a slight bias towards the lower leaves. The egg masses are all laid within 5 leaves of the central ear leaf.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Orr|first=David B.|last2=Landis|first2=Douglas A.|date=1997-08-01|title=Oviposition of European Corn Borer (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) and Impact of Natural Enemy Populations in Transgenic Versus Isogenic Corn|url=https://academic.oup.com/jee/article/90/4/905/2216682/Oviposition-of-European-Corn-Borer-Lepidoptera|journal=Journal of Economic Entomology|volume=90|issue=4|pages=905–909|doi=10.1093/jee/90.4.905|issn=0022-0493}}</ref> Brood sizes range from 15-30 eggs and egg masses are about 6 mm in diameter.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=http://passel.unl.edu/pages/informationmodule.php?idinformationmodule=994877762&topicorder=3&maxto=11|title=Plant and Soil Sciences eLibrary|website=passel.unl.edu|access-date=2017-10-25}}</ref> |
|||
=== Male investment === |
|||
The male European corn borer produces a spermatophore ejaculate that contains spermatozoa to fertilize the female and protein to nourish the female. The cost of producing a spermatophore is relatively low compared to the female investment in oviposition. Males mated an average of 3.8 times during their life time. On average, the refractory period between matings for the male European corn borer moth was 1.6 days. With each successive mating, the volume of the spermatophore decreased. This decreased spermatophore volume is associated with a decrease in female fecundity and fertility. Females who mate with males that have already mated before are less likely to deposit all of their eggs.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Royer|first=L.|last2=McNeil|first2=J. N.|date=1993|title=Male Investment in the European Corn Borer, Ostrinia nubilalis (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae): Impact on Female Longevity and Reproductive Performance|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/2389889|journal=Functional Ecology|volume=7|issue=2|pages=209–215|doi=10.2307/2389889}}</ref> |
|||
== Host plants == |
|||
The European corn borer lives and feeds primarily on field corn, but also eats sweet corn, popcorn, and seed corn. The first generation of corn borers which develops during the late spring months feeds on the leaves and stalks of corn plants. The second generation feeds on these components of the plant in addition to the ear of corn, the leaf sheath, and the ear shank. If a third generation is produced, it will feed on the ear of corn, the leaf sheath, and the ear shank.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" /> |
|||
When corn is not abundantly present or is at the end of its harvest season, European corn borers will infest lima beans, peppers, potatoes, and snap peas. Rarely, these moths will live on various grains and soy plants or flowers.<ref name=":3" /> |
|||
== Pest of crop plants == |
|||
The European corn borer gets its name from boring holes into all components of the corn plant. The damage to the leaves reduces corn photosynthesis. Damage to the corn stalk decreases the amount of water and nutrients the plant can transport to the ear. European corn borers also eat the ear—which reduces crop yield—and the ear shank which often results in corn falling to the ground and making it unfit for harvest.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The European Corn Borer, Pyrausta Nubilalis Hu Bner: A Recently Established Pest in Massachusetts|last=Vinal|first=Stuart Cunningham|publisher=Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station|year=1917|isbn=|location=Chicago|pages=147-149}}</ref><ref name=":3" /> |
|||
== Mutualism == |
|||
The presence of European corn borers on corn crops and the damage caused by them increases the likelihood of stalk rot caused by the pathogen ''[[Fusarium graminearum]]''. The tunneling done by European corn borers makes it easier for ''F. graminearum'' to infect corn stalks and increases the amount of necrotic stalk tissue. The presence of ''F. graminearum'' in the tissue of corn infested by European corn borers speeds up the development of larva.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chiang|first=H. C.|last2=Wilcoxson|first2=R. D.|date=1961-10-01|title=Interactions of the European Corn Borer and Stalk Rot in Corn|url=https://doi.org/10.1093/jee/54.5.850|journal=Journal of Economic Entomology|language=en|volume=54|issue=5|pages=850–852|doi=10.1093/jee/54.5.850|issn=0022-0493}}</ref> |
|||
== Sex pheromones == |
|||
== See also == |
== See also == |
||
| Line 57: | Line 114: | ||
File:Ostrinia nubilalis male dorsal.jpg|Male, dorsal view |
File:Ostrinia nubilalis male dorsal.jpg|Male, dorsal view |
||
File:Ostrinia nubilalis male ventral.jpg|Male, ventral view |
File:Ostrinia nubilalis male ventral.jpg|Male, ventral view |
||
| ⚫ | |||
</gallery> |
</gallery> |
||
Revision as of 04:34, 25 October 2017
| European corn borer | |
|---|---|
| |
| Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | |
| Phylum: | |
| Class: | |
| Order: | |
| Family: | |
| Tribe: | |
| Genus: | |
| Species: | O. nubilalis
|
| Binomial name | |
| Ostrinia nubilalis [1] (Hübner, 1796)
| |
| Synonyms | |
| |
,_Arnhem,_the_Netherlands.jpg)
The European corn worm or European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis), also known as the European high-flyer, is a pest of grain, particularly maize. The insect is native to Europe, originally infesting varieties of millet, including broom corn. The European corn borer was first reported in North America in 1917 in Massachusetts, but was probably introduced from Europe several years earlier.[2] Since its initial discovery in the Americas, the insect has spread into Canada and westward across the United States to the Rocky Mountains.
European corn borer caterpillars damage the ears of corn, as well as the stalks, by chewing tunnels, which cause the plants to fall over. In the United States, the economic impact from corn crop yield losses and population control expenses exceeds $1 billion annually.[3]
Biological control agents of corn borers include the hymenopteran parasitoid Trichogramma spp., the fungus Beauveria bassiana and the protozoa Nosema pyrausta.
Bt corn, a variety of genetically modified maize, has had its genome modified to include a gene from the Bacillus thuringiensis ssp. kurstaki. As a result, the corn variety produces a protein that kills Lepidoptera larvae, in particular European corn borer.[4]
Immature maize shoots accumulate a powerful antibiotic substance, DIMBOA, that serves as a natural defense against a wide range of pests and is also responsible for the relative resistance of immature maize to the European corn borer.
Description
The corn borer moth is about one inch long with a one-inch wingspan. The female moth is light yellowish-brown with dark, irregular, wavy bands across the wings. The male is slightly smaller and darker in coloration. The tip of its abdomen protrudes beyond its closed wings. The fully-grown larva is three-quarters to one inch in length. This borer is usually flesh-colored, but may range from light gray to faint pink, with conspicuous small, round, brown spots on each segment.
Female corn borer moths lay clusters of eggs on corn leaves, usually on the undersides. The egg masses, or clusters, are laid in an overlapping configuration and are whitish-yellow in color. As the larvae develop inside their eggs, the eggs become more and more transparent and the immature caterpillar black heads are eventually visible. The caterpillars hatch by chewing their way out of the eggs.
Geographic range
The European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis) is native to Europe and was introduced to North America in the early 20th century.[5] This moth plagues corn crops in France Spain, Italy, and Poland. In North America, ECBs are found in Eastern Canada and every state in the United States east of the Rocky Mountains.[6]
Climate change
With the increase in temperature in much of central and Eastern Europe associated with climate change, it is predicted that the habitable region of the European corn borer will expand further affecting agricultural crops. Additionally, an increase in the number of generations is expected. The CLIMEX model predicts that the area of arable land that will be affected by the European corn borer in Europe will increase by 61%.[7]
Life cycle
The European corn borer progresses through four developmental stages. These are the egg, larva, pupa, and adult. The larval stage is when the insect is referred to as a borer and the adult stage is a moth. The adult moths lay their eggs on corn plants. Larva hatch from the eggs. Within the larval/borer stage are five instars or sub-stages of development. The larval stage is followed by a period of diapause or hibernation in a pupa. During the pupal stage, the borers progress through metamorphosis in a suspended chrysalis. Following this intense period of development, an adult moth emerges from the pupa. The length of the pupal stage is determined by environmental factors such as temperature, number of light hours, and larval nutrition in addition to genetics.[8]
The bivoltine populations of European corn borers undergo the pupal stage twice during the spring months, first in May-June and then again in July-August. During the colder winter months, the European corn borer stays in its larval stage. Temperatures exceeding 50 degrees Fahrenheit induce the other developmental stages. During these warmer months, the North American corn crop is growing and provides a food source for the borers.[8]
Eggs
A female moth can lay two egg masses per night for 10 nights. The number of eggs per egg mass decreases each day with a majority of eggs laid before the seventh night. The female lays white eggs which then become pale yellow and finally translucent before hatching. The eggs hatch within three to seven days of oviposition.[9]
Diapause
Diapause, also known as hibernation, in European corn borers is induced by temperature and changes in number of daylight hours. At higher temperatures, shorter photoperiods are sufficient to induce diapause. At 13.5 hours of light followed by 10.5 hours of dark, 100% of ECB larva entered diapause regardless of temperature with the range of 18 to 29 degrees Celsius. At high temperatures and long photoperiods, fewer larva enter diapause.[10]
Mating
Voltinism
The original European corn borers introduced to North America in the early 20th century established a population in New York. These populations were univoltine, meaning they produce one brood per year. A second population of European corn borers was introduced in Massachusetts and spread to Long Island and the Hudson River Valley. This second population is bivoltine and produces two broods per year.[11]
Polyandry
If presented with the opportunity, female European corn borers, like most moths, mate with multiple males in a reproductive strategy known as polyandry. Polyandry produces several benefits to female European corn borers. Mutiple matings increase female fecundity and longevity, because female moths receive both nutritional resources and multiple spermatophores from males. Mating with multiple males ensures that the female receives enough sperm to completely fertilize her eggs. Additionally, mating with multiple males increases the reproductive fitness of females, because it increases the genetic diversity of the female’s offspring making it more likely that at least some of them will mate in the future and pass on her genes.[12]
Sex pheromones
Female calling behavior in European corn borers involves the extrusion of the pheromone gland and release of sex pheromones. This calling behavior is influenced by the circadian rhythm of the moth and tends to occur at night. Higher humidity also induces the calling behavior, while desiccation or drying out of the moths decreases calling behavior.[13]
There are two strains of European corn borers that are defined by their sex pheromone communication variant. These strains are the Z and E strains named after the stereochemistry of the predominant isomer of 11-tetradecenyl acetate that these moths produce.[14]
The E variant of pheromone has a trans- configuration of hydrogen molecules around its double bond, while the Z variant has a cis- configuration. The Z strain produces a 97:3 ratio of Z to E isomer pheromone while the E strain produces a 4:96 ratio of Z to E isomer pheromone. A mixture of isomers is much more efficient at producing flight in a particular direction in both the Z and E strain as compared to a single component alone. [15][14]
Parental care
Oviposition
The female European corn borer moth lays eggs first in June. The eggs are laid on the underside of corn plant leaves near the midvein. Oviposition forms a relatively normal distribution with 87.1% of egg masses laid on the leaf just below the primary ear leaf and an equal number of egg masses laid above and below this leaf with a slight bias towards the lower leaves. The egg masses are all laid within 5 leaves of the central ear leaf.[16] Brood sizes range from 15-30 eggs and egg masses are about 6 mm in diameter.[17]
Male investment
The male European corn borer produces a spermatophore ejaculate that contains spermatozoa to fertilize the female and protein to nourish the female. The cost of producing a spermatophore is relatively low compared to the female investment in oviposition. Males mated an average of 3.8 times during their life time. On average, the refractory period between matings for the male European corn borer moth was 1.6 days. With each successive mating, the volume of the spermatophore decreased. This decreased spermatophore volume is associated with a decrease in female fecundity and fertility. Females who mate with males that have already mated before are less likely to deposit all of their eggs.[18]
Host plants
The European corn borer lives and feeds primarily on field corn, but also eats sweet corn, popcorn, and seed corn. The first generation of corn borers which develops during the late spring months feeds on the leaves and stalks of corn plants. The second generation feeds on these components of the plant in addition to the ear of corn, the leaf sheath, and the ear shank. If a third generation is produced, it will feed on the ear of corn, the leaf sheath, and the ear shank.[5][17]
When corn is not abundantly present or is at the end of its harvest season, European corn borers will infest lima beans, peppers, potatoes, and snap peas. Rarely, these moths will live on various grains and soy plants or flowers.[17]
Pest of crop plants
The European corn borer gets its name from boring holes into all components of the corn plant. The damage to the leaves reduces corn photosynthesis. Damage to the corn stalk decreases the amount of water and nutrients the plant can transport to the ear. European corn borers also eat the ear—which reduces crop yield—and the ear shank which often results in corn falling to the ground and making it unfit for harvest.[19][17]
Mutualism
The presence of European corn borers on corn crops and the damage caused by them increases the likelihood of stalk rot caused by the pathogen Fusarium graminearum. The tunneling done by European corn borers makes it easier for F. graminearum to infect corn stalks and increases the amount of necrotic stalk tissue. The presence of F. graminearum in the tissue of corn infested by European corn borers speeds up the development of larva.[20]
Sex pheromones
See also
Gallery
-
Female, dorsal view -
Female, ventral view -
Male, dorsal view -
Male, ventral view
Notes
- ^ "Ostrinia nubilalis". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved July 6, 2007.
- ^ Caffrey, D. J.; Worthley, L. H. Details - A progress report on the investigations of the European corn borer / - Biodiversity Heritage Library. doi:10.5962/bhl.title.108390.
- ^ "The European Corn Borer | The European Corn Borer". www.ent.iastate.edu. Retrieved 2017-10-25.
- ^ University of Kentucky Extension Service Bt Corn - What it is and how it works
- ^ a b Martel, C.; Réjasse, A.; Rousset, F.; Bethenod, M.-T.; Bourguet, D. (2003). "Host-plant-associated genetic differentiation in Northern French populations of the European corn borer". Heredity. 90 (2): 141–149. doi:10.1038/sj.hdy.6800186. ISSN 0018-067X.
- ^ "The European Corn Borer | The European Corn Borer". www.ent.iastate.edu. Retrieved 2017-10-25.
- ^ Kocmánková, E.; Trnka, M.; Eitzinger, J.; Dubrovský, M.; Štěpánek, P.; Semerádová, D.; Balek, J.; Skalák, P.; Farda, A. (2011/04). "Estimating the impact of climate change on the occurrence of selected pests at a high spatial resolution: a novel approach". The Journal of Agricultural Science. 149 (2): 185–195. doi:10.1017/s0021859610001140. ISSN 1469-5146.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ a b "Life Cycle and Generational Ecotypes of the European Corn Borer | The European Corn Borer". www.ent.iastate.edu. Retrieved 2017-10-25.
- ^ Phelan, P. L.; Norris, K. H.; Mason, J. F. (1996-12-01). "Soil-Management History and Host Preference by Ostrinia nubilalis: Evidence for Plant Mineral Balance Mediating Insect–Plant Interactions". Environmental Entomology. 25 (6): 1329–1336. doi:10.1093/ee/25.6.1329. ISSN 0046-225X.
- ^ Beck, S.D.; Hanec, W. "Diapause in the European corn borer, Pyrausta nubilalis (Hübn.)". Journal of Insect Physiology. 4 (4): 304–318. doi:10.1016/0022-1910(60)90056-1.
- ^ Glover, T. J.; Tang, X.-H.; Roelofs, W. L. (1987-01-01). "Sex pheromone blend discrimination by male moths fromE andZ strains of European corn borer". Journal of Chemical Ecology. 13 (1): 143–151. doi:10.1007/BF01020358. ISSN 0098-0331.
- ^ Fadamiro, Henry Y; Baker, Thomas C. "Reproductive performance and longevity of female European corn borer, Ostrinia nubilalis: effects of multiple mating, delay in mating, and adult feeding". Journal of Insect Physiology. 45 (4): 385–392. doi:10.1016/s0022-1910(98)00137-1.
- ^ Royer, L.; McNeil, J. N. (1991-11-01). "Changes in calling behaviour and mating success in the European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis), caused by relative humidity". Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata. 61 (2): 131–138. doi:10.1111/j.1570-7458.1991.tb02405.x. ISSN 1570-7458.
- ^ a b Glover, T. J.; Tang, X.-H.; Roelofs, W. L. (1987-01-01). "Sex pheromone blend discrimination by male moths fromE andZ strains of European corn borer". Journal of Chemical Ecology. 13 (1): 143–151. doi:10.1007/BF01020358. ISSN 0098-0331.
- ^ Klun, J. A. (1975-12-01). "Insect Sex Pheromones: Intraspecific Pheromonal Variability of Ostrinia nubilalis1 in North America and Europe2". Environmental Entomology. 4 (6): 891–894. doi:10.1093/ee/4.6.891. ISSN 0046-225X.
- ^ Orr, David B.; Landis, Douglas A. (1997-08-01). "Oviposition of European Corn Borer (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) and Impact of Natural Enemy Populations in Transgenic Versus Isogenic Corn". Journal of Economic Entomology. 90 (4): 905–909. doi:10.1093/jee/90.4.905. ISSN 0022-0493.
- ^ a b c d "Plant and Soil Sciences eLibrary". passel.unl.edu. Retrieved 2017-10-25.
- ^ Royer, L.; McNeil, J. N. (1993). "Male Investment in the European Corn Borer, Ostrinia nubilalis (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae): Impact on Female Longevity and Reproductive Performance". Functional Ecology. 7 (2): 209–215. doi:10.2307/2389889.
- ^ Vinal, Stuart Cunningham (1917). The European Corn Borer, Pyrausta Nubilalis Hu Bner: A Recently Established Pest in Massachusetts. Chicago: Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station. pp. 147–149.
- ^ Chiang, H. C.; Wilcoxson, R. D. (1961-10-01). "Interactions of the European Corn Borer and Stalk Rot in Corn". Journal of Economic Entomology. 54 (5): 850–852. doi:10.1093/jee/54.5.850. ISSN 0022-0493.
External links
- European corn-borer at UKmoths
- European corn borer on the UF / IFAS Featured Creatures Web site
- Lepiforum.de