Paleoparasitology: Difference between revisions

Edit links
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Browse history interactively
← Previous editNext edit →
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
Rescuing 4 sources and tagging 5 as dead. #IABot (v1.6.2) (Balon Greyjoy)
m Journal cites:, added 49 DOIs, templated 46 journal cites
Line 1: Line 1:
'''Paleoparasitology''' (or "palaeoparasitology") is the study of [[parasitism|parasite]]s from the past,<ref>Araújo, A., K. Reinhard and L. F. Ferreira (2015) [https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/bs.apar.2015.03.003 Palaeoparasitology - Human Parasites in Ancient Material]. ''Advances in Parasitology'' 90:349-387.</ref> and their interactions with hosts and [[Vector (epidemiology)|vectors]]; it is a subfield of [[Paleontology]], the study of living organisms from the past. Some authors define this term more narrowly, as "Paleoparasitology is the study of parasites in archaeological material." (p.&nbsp;103)<ref>Gonçalves, M.L.C., A. Araújo, and L.F. Ferreira (2003) Human intestinal parasites in the past: New findings and a review. ''Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz'' 98(Suppl 1):103-118.</ref> K.J. Reinhard suggests that the term "[[archaeoparasitology]]" be applied to "... all parasitological remains excavated from archaeological contexts ... derived from human activity" and that "the term 'paleoparasitology' be applied to studies of nonhuman, paleontological material." (p.&nbsp;233)<ref>Reinhard, K.J. (1992) Parasitology as an interpretive tool in archaeology. ''American Antiquity'' 57(2):231-245.</ref> This article follows Reinhard's suggestion and discusses the [[protozoa]]n and animal parasites of non-human animals and plants from the past, while those from humans and our [[hominid]] ancestors are covered in [[archaeoparasitology]].
'''Paleoparasitology''' (or "palaeoparasitology") is the study of [[parasitism|parasite]]s from the past,<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Araújo | first1 = A. | last2 = Reinhard | first2 = K. | last3 = Ferreira | first3 = L. F. | year = 2015 | title = Palaeoparasitology - Human Parasites in Ancient Material | journal = Advances in Parasitology | volume = 90 | issue = | pages = 349–387 | doi=10.1016/bs.apar.2015.03.003}}</ref> and their interactions with hosts and [[Vector (epidemiology)|vectors]]; it is a subfield of [[Paleontology]], the study of living organisms from the past. Some authors define this term more narrowly, as "Paleoparasitology is the study of parasites in archaeological material." (p.&nbsp;103)<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Gonçalves | first1 = M.L.C. | last2 = Araújo | first2 = A. | last3 = Ferreira | first3 = L.F. | year = 2003 | title = Human intestinal parasites in the past: New findings and a review | url = | journal = Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz | volume = 98 | issue = Suppl 1| pages = 103–118 }}</ref> K.J. Reinhard suggests that the term "[[archaeoparasitology]]" be applied to "... all parasitological remains excavated from archaeological contexts ... derived from human activity" and that "the term 'paleoparasitology' be applied to studies of nonhuman, paleontological material." (p.&nbsp;233)<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Reinhard | first1 = K.J. | year = 1992 | title = Parasitology as an interpretive tool in archaeology | url = | journal = American Antiquity | volume = 57 | issue = 2| pages = 231–245 }}</ref> This article follows Reinhard's suggestion and discusses the [[protozoa]]n and animal parasites of non-human animals and plants from the past, while those from humans and our [[hominid]] ancestors are covered in [[archaeoparasitology]].


==Sources of material==
==Sources of material==
[[File:Parasite130094-fig1 Capillaria hepatica eggs.tif|thumb|left|Cysts found in a corpse in a late Roman grave in France, interpreted <ref name="Mowlavi"/> as signs of probable [[hydatidosis]] and [[capillariasis]]]]
[[File:Parasite130094-fig1 Capillaria hepatica eggs.tif|thumb|left|Cysts found in a corpse in a late Roman grave in France, interpreted <ref name="Mowlavi"/> as signs of probable [[hydatidosis]] and [[capillariasis]]]]
The primary sources of paleoparasitological material include [[mummy|mummified]] tissues,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Nezamabadi M, Mashkour M, Aali A, Stöllner T, Le Bailly M |title=IDENTIFICATION OF TAENIA SP. IN A NATURAL HUMAN MUMMY (3RD CENTURY BC) FROM THE CHEHRABAD SALT MINE IN IRAN |journal=The Journal of Parasitology | url=http://www.journalofparasitology.org/doi/abs/10.1645/12-113.1}}</ref><ref name="Mowlavi">{{Cite journal | last1 = Mowlavi | first1 = G. | last2 = Kacki | first2 = S. | last3 = Dupouy-Camet | first3 = J. | last4 = Mobedi | first4 = I. | last5 = Makki | first5 = M. | last6 = Harandi | first6 = MF. | last7 = Naddaf | first7 = SR. | title = Probable hepatic capillariosis and hydatidosis in an adolescent from the late Roman period buried in Amiens (France). | journal = Parasite | volume = 21 | issue = | pages = 9 | month = | year = 2014 | doi = 10.1051/parasite/2014010 | PMID = 24572211 |PMC = 3936287 }} {{open access}}</ref><ref>Dittmar de la Cruz, K., R. Ribbeck, and A. Daugschies (2003) Paläoparasitologische Analyse von Meerschweinchenmumien der Chiribaya-Kultur (900-1100 AD). ''Berliner und Münchener Tierärztliche Wochenschrift'' 116(1-2):45-49.</ref> [[coprolite]]s (fossilised dung) from mammals<ref>Schmidt, G.D., D.W. Duszynski, and P.S. Martin (1992) Parasites of the extinct Shasta ground sloth, ''Nothrotheriops shastensis'', in Rampart Cave, Arizona. ''Journal of Parasitology'' 78(5):811-816.</ref> or dinosaurs,<ref>Poinar, G., Jr. and A.J. Boucot (2006) [http://10.1017/S0031182006000138 Evidence of intestinal parasites in dinosaurs]{{dead link|date=January 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}. ''Parasitology'' 133(2):245-249.</ref> [[fossil]]s,<ref name="ConwayMorris">Conway Morris, S. (1981) Parasites and the fossil record. ''Parasitology'' 82(3):489-509.</ref> and [[Amber#Inclusions|amber inclusions]].<ref>Poinar, G.O., Jr. and R. Poinar (1999) ''The Amber Forest: A Reconstruction of a Vanished World.'' Princeton University Press, xviii, 239 pp.</ref> Hair,<ref>Penalver, E. and D. Grimaldi (2005) [https://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0263593300001292 Assemblages of mammalian hair and blood-feeding midges (Insecta: Diptera: Psychodidae: Phlebotominae) in Miocene amber]. ''Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh: Earth Sciences'' 96:177-195.</ref> skins,<ref>Mey E. (2005) [http://www.phthiraptera.org/Publications/46150.pdf ''Psittacobrosus bechsteini'': A new extinct chewing louse (Insecta, Phthiraptera, Amblycera) off the Cuban macaw ''Ara tricolor'' (Psittaciiformes), with an annotated review of fossil and recently extinct animal lice]{{dead link|date=January 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}. ''Anzeiger des Vereins Thueringer Ornithologen'' 5(2):201-217.</ref> and feathers<ref>Martill, D.M. and P.G. Davis (2001) A feather with possible ectoparasite eggs from the Crato Formation (Lower Cretaceous, Aptian) of Brazil. ''Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Palaeontologie Abhandlungen'' 219(3):241-259.</ref> also yield ectoparasite remains. Some archaeological artifacts document the presence of animal parasites. One example is the depiction of what appear to be mites in the ear of a "hyaena-like" animal in a tomb painting from [[Ancient Thebes (Boeotia)|ancient Thebes]].<ref>Arthur, D.R. (1965) [https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/2061060a0 Ticks in Egypt in 1500 B.C.?] ''Nature'' 206(4988):1060-1061.</ref>
The primary sources of paleoparasitological material include [[mummy|mummified]] tissues,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Nezamabadi M, Mashkour M, Aali A, Stöllner T, Le Bailly M |title=IDENTIFICATION OF TAENIA SP. IN A NATURAL HUMAN MUMMY (3RD CENTURY BC) FROM THE CHEHRABAD SALT MINE IN IRAN |journal=The Journal of Parasitology | url=http://www.journalofparasitology.org/doi/abs/10.1645/12-113.1 |doi=10.1645/12-113.1 |volume=99 |year=2013 |pages=570–572}}</ref><ref name="Mowlavi">{{Cite journal | last1 = Mowlavi | first1 = G. | last2 = Kacki | first2 = S. | last3 = Dupouy-Camet | first3 = J. | last4 = Mobedi | first4 = I. | last5 = Makki | first5 = M. | last6 = Harandi | first6 = MF. | last7 = Naddaf | first7 = SR. | title = Probable hepatic capillariosis and hydatidosis in an adolescent from the late Roman period buried in Amiens (France). | journal = Parasite | volume = 21 | issue = | pages = 9 | month = | year = 2014 | doi = 10.1051/parasite/2014010 | PMID = 24572211 |PMC = 3936287 }} {{open access}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Dittmar | first1 = | last2 = de la Cruz | first2 = K. | last3 = Ribbeck | first3 = R. | last4 = Daugschies | first4 = A. | year = 2003 | title = Paläoparasitologische Analyse von Meerschweinchenmumien der Chiribaya-Kultur (900-1100 AD) | url = | journal = Berliner und Münchener Tierärztliche Wochenschrift | volume = 116 | issue = 1–2| pages = 45–49 }}</ref> [[coprolite]]s (fossilised dung) from mammals<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Schmidt | first1 = G.D. | last2 = Duszynski | first2 = D.W. | last3 = Martin | first3 = P.S. | year = 1992 | title = Parasites of the extinct Shasta ground sloth, ''Nothrotheriops shastensis'', in Rampart Cave, Arizona | url = | journal = Journal of Parasitology | volume = 78 | issue = 5| pages = 811–816 }}</ref> or dinosaurs,<ref>Poinar, G., Jr. and A.J. Boucot (2006) [http://10.1017/S0031182006000138 Evidence of intestinal parasites in dinosaurs]{{dead link|date=January 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}. ''Parasitology'' 133(2):245-249.</ref> [[fossil]]s,<ref name="ConwayMorris">{{cite journal | last1 = Conway Morris | first1 = S | year = 1981 | title = Parasites and the fossil record | url = | journal = Parasitology | volume = 82 | issue = 3| pages = 489–509 }}</ref> and [[Amber#Inclusions|amber inclusions]].<ref>Poinar, G.O., Jr. and R. Poinar (1999) ''The Amber Forest: A Reconstruction of a Vanished World.'' Princeton University Press, xviii, 239 pp.</ref> Hair,<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Penalver | first1 = E. | last2 = Grimaldi | first2 = D. | year = 2005 | title = Assemblages of mammalian hair and blood-feeding midges (Insecta: Diptera: Psychodidae: Phlebotominae) in Miocene amber | journal = Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh: Earth Sciences | volume = 96 | issue = | pages = 177–195 | doi=10.1017/S0263593300001292}}</ref> skins,<ref>Mey E. (2005) [http://www.phthiraptera.org/Publications/46150.pdf ''Psittacobrosus bechsteini'': A new extinct chewing louse (Insecta, Phthiraptera, Amblycera) off the Cuban macaw ''Ara tricolor'' (Psittaciiformes), with an annotated review of fossil and recently extinct animal lice]{{dead link|date=January 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}. ''Anzeiger des Vereins Thueringer Ornithologen'' 5(2):201-217.</ref> and feathers<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Martill | first1 = D.M. | last2 = Davis | first2 = P.G. | year = 2001 | title = A feather with possible ectoparasite eggs from the Crato Formation (Lower Cretaceous, Aptian) of Brazil | url = | journal = Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Palaeontologie Abhandlungen | volume = 219 | issue = 3| pages = 241–259 }}</ref> also yield ectoparasite remains. Some archaeological artifacts document the presence of animal parasites. One example is the depiction of what appear to be mites in the ear of a "hyaena-like" animal in a tomb painting from [[Ancient Thebes (Boeotia)|ancient Thebes]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Arthur | first1 = D.R. | year = 1965 | title = Ticks in Egypt in 1500 B.C.? | journal = Nature | volume = 206 | issue = 4988| pages = 1060–1061 | doi=10.1038/2061060a0}}</ref>


Some parasites leave marks or traces ([[trace fossils|ichnofossils]]) on host remains, which persist in the fossil record in the absence of structural remains of the parasite. Parasitic ichnofossils include plant remains which exhibit characteristic signs of parasitic insect infestation, such as [[gall]]s or [[Leaf miner|leaf mines]]<ref>Scott, A.C., J. Stephenson, and M.E. Collinson (1994) [http://eprints.rhul.ac.uk/162/1/112Scottetal1994.pdf The fossil record of leaves with galls]{{dead link|date=January 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}. In: M.A.J. Williams (ed) ''Plant Gall - Organisms, Interactions, and Populations''. Systematics Association Special Volume Series, Vol. 49. Clarendon Press: Oxford, pp. 447-470.</ref><ref>Woodcock, D.W. and S. Maekawa (2006) Fossil leaf galls preserved in Honolulu volcanic series rocks. ''Bishop Museum Occasional Papers'' 88:20-22.</ref><ref>Erwin, D.M. and K.N. Schick (2007) [http://jpaleontol.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/content/abstract/81/3/568 New Miocene oak galls (Cynipini) and their bearing on the history of cynipid wasps in western North America]. ''Journal of Paleontology'' 81(3):568-580.</ref><ref name="journals.royalsociety">Stone, G.N., R.W.J.M. van der Ham, and J.G. Brewer (2008) [http://journals.royalsociety.org/content/f7162881um1p1437/fulltext.pdf Fossil oak galls preserve ancient multitrophic interactions]{{dead link|date=January 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}. ''Proceedings of the Royal Society, Series B. Biological Sciences'' 275(1648):2213-2219.</ref> and certain anomalies seen in invertebrate endoskeletal remains.<ref>Ruiz, G.M. and D.R. Lindberg (1989) A fossil record for trematodes: Extent and potential uses. ''Lethaia'' 22:431-438.</ref><ref>Radwanska, U. and A. Radwanski (2005) [http://www.geo.uw.edu.pl/agp/table/pdf/55-2/radwanska.pdf Myzostomid and copepod infestation of Jurassic echinoderms: A general approach, some new occurrences, and/or re-interpretation of previous reports] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060504002608/http://www.geo.uw.edu.pl/agp/table/pdf/55-2/radwanska.pdf |date=2006-05-04 }}. ''Acta Geologica Polonica'' 55(2):109-130.</ref><ref>Huntley, J. W. and K. De Baets (2015) [https://www.gzn.fau.de/fileadmin/data/pal/PDF/Huntley_and_De_Baets_2015_Advances_in_Parasitology_Trace_fossil_evidence_of_trematode-bivalve_parasite-host_interactions_in_deep_time.pdf Trace Fossil Evidence of Trematode—Bivalve Parasite—Host Interactions in Deep Time]. ''Advances in Parasitology'' 90:201-231. {{doi|10.1016/bs.apar.2015.05.004}}</ref><ref>Donovan, S. K. (2015) [https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/bs.apar.2015.05.003 A Prejudiced Review of Ancient Parasites and Their Host Echinoderms: CSI Fossil Record or Just an Excuse for Speculation?]. ''Advances in Parasitology'' 90:291-328.</ref><ref>Klompmaker, A.A. and G. A. Boxshall G.A. (2015) [https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/bs.apar.2015.06.001 Fossil Crustaceans as Parasites and Hosts.]. ''Advances in Parasitology'' 90:233-289.</ref><ref>Taylor, P. D. (2015) [https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/bs.apar.2015.05.002 Differentiating Parasitism and Other Interactions in Fossilized Colonial Organisms]. ''Advances in Parasitology'' 90:329-347.</ref>
Some parasites leave marks or traces ([[trace fossils|ichnofossils]]) on host remains, which persist in the fossil record in the absence of structural remains of the parasite. Parasitic ichnofossils include plant remains which exhibit characteristic signs of parasitic insect infestation, such as [[gall]]s or [[Leaf miner|leaf mines]]<ref>Scott, A.C., J. Stephenson, and M.E. Collinson (1994) [http://eprints.rhul.ac.uk/162/1/112Scottetal1994.pdf The fossil record of leaves with galls]{{dead link|date=January 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}. In: M.A.J. Williams (ed) ''Plant Gall - Organisms, Interactions, and Populations''. Systematics Association Special Volume Series, Vol. 49. Clarendon Press: Oxford, pp. 447-470.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Woodcock | first1 = D.W. | last2 = Maekawa | first2 = S. | year = 2006 | title = Fossil leaf galls preserved in Honolulu volcanic series rocks | url = | journal = Bishop Museum Occasional Papers | volume = 88 | issue = | pages = 20–22 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Erwin | first1 = D.M. | last2 = Schick | first2 = K.N. | year = 2007 | title = New Miocene oak galls (Cynipini) and their bearing on the history of cynipid wasps in western North America | url = http://jpaleontol.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/content/abstract/81/3/568 | journal = Journal of Paleontology | volume = 81 | issue = 3| pages = 568–580 }}</ref><ref name="journals.royalsociety">Stone, G.N., R.W.J.M. van der Ham, and J.G. Brewer (2008) [http://journals.royalsociety.org/content/f7162881um1p1437/fulltext.pdf Fossil oak galls preserve ancient multitrophic interactions]{{dead link|date=January 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}. ''Proceedings of the Royal Society, Series B. Biological Sciences'' 275(1648):2213-2219.</ref> and certain anomalies seen in invertebrate endoskeletal remains.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Ruiz | first1 = G.M. | last2 = Lindberg | first2 = D.R. | year = 1989 | title = A fossil record for trematodes: Extent and potential uses | url = | journal = Lethaia | volume = 22 | issue = | pages = 431–438 }}</ref><ref>Radwanska, U. and A. Radwanski (2005) [http://www.geo.uw.edu.pl/agp/table/pdf/55-2/radwanska.pdf Myzostomid and copepod infestation of Jurassic echinoderms: A general approach, some new occurrences, and/or re-interpretation of previous reports] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060504002608/http://www.geo.uw.edu.pl/agp/table/pdf/55-2/radwanska.pdf |date=2006-05-04 }}. ''Acta Geologica Polonica'' 55(2):109-130.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Huntley | first1 = J. W. | last2 = De Baets | first2 = K. | year = 2015 | title = Trace Fossil Evidence of Trematode—Bivalve Parasite—Host Interactions in Deep Time | url = https://www.gzn.fau.de/fileadmin/data/pal/PDF/Huntley_and_De_Baets_2015_Advances_in_Parasitology_Trace_fossil_evidence_of_trematode-bivalve_parasite-host_interactions_in_deep_time.pdf | format = PDF | journal = Advances in Parasitology | volume = 90 | issue = | pages = 201–231 | doi = 10.1016/bs.apar.2015.05.004 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Donovan | first1 = S. K. | year = 2015 | title = A Prejudiced Review of Ancient Parasites and Their Host Echinoderms: CSI Fossil Record or Just an Excuse for Speculation? | journal = Advances in Parasitology | volume = 90 | issue = | pages = 291–328 | doi=10.1016/bs.apar.2015.05.003}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Klompmaker | first1 = A.A. | last2 = Boxshall | first2 = G.A. | year = 2015 | title = Fossil Crustaceans as Parasites and Hosts | journal = Advances in Parasitology | volume = 90 | issue = | pages = 233–289 | doi=10.1016/bs.apar.2015.06.001}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Taylor | first1 = P. D. | year = 2015 | title = Differentiating Parasitism and Other Interactions in Fossilized Colonial Organisms | journal = Advances in Parasitology | volume = 90 | issue = | pages = 329–347 | doi=10.1016/bs.apar.2015.05.002}}</ref>


Plant and animal parasites have been found in samples from a broad spectrum of geological periods, including the [[Holocene]] (samples over 10,000 years old),<ref>Larew, H.G. (1987) Two cynipid wasp acorn galls preserved in the La Brea Tar Pits (early Holocene). ''Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington'' 89(4):831-833.</ref> [[Pleistocene]] (over 550,000 years old),<ref>Jouy-Avantin, F., C. Combes, H. Lumley, J.-C. Miskovsky, and H. Moné (1999) Helminth eggs in animal coprolites from a Middle Pleistocene site in Europe. ''Journal of Parasitology'' 85(2):376-379</ref> [[Eocene]] (over 44 million years old),<ref>Wappler, T., V.S. Smith, and R.C. Dalgleish (2004) Scratching an ancient itch: An Eocene bird louse fossil. ''Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B. Biological Sciences'' 271(Suppl 5):s255-s258.</ref> [[Cretaceous]] (over 100 million years)<ref>Poinar, G., Jr. and S.R. Telford, Jr. (2005) Paleohaemoproteus burmacis gen.n., sp.n. (Haemosporidia: Plasmodidae) from an Early Cretaceous biting midge (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae). Parasitology 131(1):79-84.</ref> and even [[Lower Cambrian]] (over 500 million years).<ref>Bassett, M.G., L.E. Popov and L.E. Holmer (2004) [http://jpaleontol.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/content/extract/78/6/1214 The oldest-known metazoan parasite?] ''Journal of Paleontology'' 78(6):1214-1216.</ref>
Plant and animal parasites have been found in samples from a broad spectrum of geological periods, including the [[Holocene]] (samples over 10,000 years old),<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Larew | first1 = H.G. | year = 1987 | title = Two cynipid wasp acorn galls preserved in the La Brea Tar Pits (early Holocene) | url = | journal = Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington | volume = 89 | issue = 4| pages = 831–833 }}</ref> [[Pleistocene]] (over 550,000 years old),<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Jouy-Avantin | first1 = F. | last2 = Combes | first2 = C. | last3 = Lumley | first3 = H. | last4 = Miskovsky | first4 = J.-C. | last5 = Moné | first5 = H. | year = 1999 | title = Helminth eggs in animal coprolites from a Middle Pleistocene site in Europe | url = | journal = Journal of Parasitology | volume = 85 | issue = 2| pages = 376–379 }}</ref> [[Eocene]] (over 44 million years old),<ref>Wappler, T., V.S. Smith, and R.C. Dalgleish (2004) Scratching an ancient itch: An Eocene bird louse fossil. ''Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B. Biological Sciences'' 271(Suppl 5):s255-s258.</ref> [[Cretaceous]] (over 100 million years)<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Poinar | first1 = G. | last2 = Jr | first2 = | last3 = Telford Jr | first3 = S.R. | year = 2005 | title = Paleohaemoproteus burmacis gen.n., sp.n. (Haemosporidia: Plasmodidae) from an Early Cretaceous biting midge (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) | url = | journal = Parasitology | volume = 131 | issue = 1| pages = 79–84 }}</ref> and even [[Lower Cambrian]] (over 500 million years).<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Bassett | first1 = M.G. | last2 = Popov | first2 = L.E. | last3 = Holmer | first3 = L.E. | year = 2004 | title = The oldest-known metazoan parasite? | url = http://jpaleontol.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/content/extract/78/6/1214 | journal = Journal of Paleontology | volume = 78 | issue = 6| pages = 1214–1216 }}</ref>


==Evidence of parasitism==
==Evidence of parasitism==


One of the most daunting tasks involved in studying parasitic relationships from the past is supporting the assertion that the relationship between two organisms is indeed parasitic.<ref>Littlewood, D.T.J. and S.K. Donovan (2003) [https://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2451.2003.00406.x Fossil parasites: A case of identity]. ''Geology Today'' 19(4):136-142.</ref> Organisms living in "close association" with each other may exhibit one of several different types of [[Trophic dynamics|trophic]] relationships, such as [[parasitism]], [[Mutualism (biology)|mutualism]], and [[commensalism]]. Demonstration of true parasitism between existing species typically involves observing the harmful effects of parasites on a presumed host. Experimental infection of the presumed host, followed by recovery of [[:wikt:viable|viable]] parasites from that host also supports any claim of true parasitism. Obviously such experiments are not possible with specimens of extinct organisms found in paleontological contexts.
One of the most daunting tasks involved in studying parasitic relationships from the past is supporting the assertion that the relationship between two organisms is indeed parasitic.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Littlewood | first1 = D.T.J. | last2 = Donovan | first2 = S.K. | year = 2003 | title = Fossil parasites: A case of identity | journal = Geology Today | volume = 19 | issue = 4| pages = 136–142 | doi=10.1046/j.1365-2451.2003.00406.x}}</ref> Organisms living in "close association" with each other may exhibit one of several different types of [[Trophic dynamics|trophic]] relationships, such as [[parasitism]], [[Mutualism (biology)|mutualism]], and [[commensalism]]. Demonstration of true parasitism between existing species typically involves observing the harmful effects of parasites on a presumed host. Experimental infection of the presumed host, followed by recovery of [[:wikt:viable|viable]] parasites from that host also supports any claim of true parasitism. Obviously such experiments are not possible with specimens of extinct organisms found in paleontological contexts.


Assumptions of true parasitism in paleontological settings which are based on analogy to known present-day parasitic relationships may not be valid, due to [[Host (biology)#Host range|host-specificity]]. For example, ''[[Trypanosoma brucei gambiense]]'' and ''[[Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense]]'' are both devastating human parasites, but the related subspecies ''[[Trypanosoma brucei brucei]]'' will infect a number of animal hosts, but cannot even survive in the human blood stream, much less reproduce and infect a human host.<ref>Pays, E. and B. Vanhollebeke (2008) [https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.micinf.2008.07.020 Mutual self-defence: The trypanolytic factor story]. ''Microbes and Infection'' 10(9):985-989.</ref> So a related (or unidentifiable) species of ''Trypanosoma'' found in a paleontological or archaeological context may not be a true human parasite, even though it appears identical (or very similar) to the modern parasitic forms.
Assumptions of true parasitism in paleontological settings which are based on analogy to known present-day parasitic relationships may not be valid, due to [[Host (biology)#Host range|host-specificity]]. For example, ''[[Trypanosoma brucei gambiense]]'' and ''[[Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense]]'' are both devastating human parasites, but the related subspecies ''[[Trypanosoma brucei brucei]]'' will infect a number of animal hosts, but cannot even survive in the human blood stream, much less reproduce and infect a human host.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Pays | first1 = E. | last2 = Vanhollebeke | first2 = B. | year = 2008 | title = Mutual self-defence: The trypanolytic factor story | journal = Microbes and Infection | volume = 10 | issue = 9| pages = 985–989 | doi=10.1016/j.micinf.2008.07.020}}</ref> So a related (or unidentifiable) species of ''Trypanosoma'' found in a paleontological or archaeological context may not be a true human parasite, even though it appears identical (or very similar) to the modern parasitic forms.


The most convincing evidence of paleoparasitism is obtained when a presumed parasite is found in direct association with its presumed host, in a context that is consistent with known host-parasite associations. Some examples include [[helminth]]s caught in amber in the process of escaping from the body of an insect,<ref>Poinar, G., Jr. and R. Buckley (2006) [https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jip.2006.04.006 Nematode (Nematoda: Mermithidae) and hairworm (Nematomorpha: Chordodidae) parasites in Early Cretaceous amber]. ''Journal of Invertebrate Pathology'' 93(1):36-41.</ref> lice found in the fur of guinea pig mummies,<ref>Dittmar, K. (2000) [http://www.scielo.cl/scielo.php?pid=S0717-73562000000100020&script=sci_arttext Evaluation of ectoparasites on the guinea pig mummies of El Yaral and Moquegua Valley, in southern Peru]. ''[[Chungara (journal)|Chungara&nbsp;— Revista de Antropología Chilena]]'' 32(1):123-125.</ref> protozoans in the alimentary canal of flies in amber,<ref>Poinar, G., Jr. and S.R. Telford, Jr. (2005) [https://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0031182005007298 ''Paleohaemoproteus burmacis'' gen.n., sp.n. (Haemospororidia: Plasmodiidae) from an Early Cretaceous biting midge (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae)]. ''Parasitology'' 131(1):79-84.</ref><ref>Poinar, G., Jr. (2008) [http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/picrender.fcgi?artid=2491605&blobtype=pdf ''Lutzomyia adiketis'' sp.n. (Diptera: Phlebotomidae), a vector of ''Paleoleishmania neotropicum'' sp.n. (Kinetoplastida: Trypanosomatidae) in Dominican amber]. ''Parasites & Vectors'' 1:22 (8 pp.).</ref> [[Nematode|nematode larvae]] found embedded in animal coprolites,<ref>Ferreira, L.F., A. Araújo, and A.N. Duarte (1993) Nematode larvae in fossilized animal coprolites from Lower and Middle Pleistocene sites, central Italy. ''Journal of Parasitology'' 79(3):440-442.</ref><ref>Toker, N.Y., V. Onar, O Belli, S. Ak, H. Alpak, and E. Konyar (2005) [http://journals.tubitak.gov.tr/veterinary/issues/vet-05-29-3/vet-29-3-26-0312-2.pdf Preliminary results of the analysis of coprolite material of a dog unearthed from the Van-Yoncatepe necropolis in eastern Anatolia]. ''Turkish Journal of Veterinary and Animal Science'' 29(6):759-765.</ref> and a mite caught in amber in the process of apparently feeding on a spider.<ref>Wunderlich, J. (2004) Fossil spiders (Araneae) of the superfamily Dysderoidea in Baltic and Dominican amber, with revised family diagnoses. ''Beiträge zur Araneologie'' 3A:633-746</ref>
The most convincing evidence of paleoparasitism is obtained when a presumed parasite is found in direct association with its presumed host, in a context that is consistent with known host-parasite associations. Some examples include [[helminth]]s caught in amber in the process of escaping from the body of an insect,<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Poinar | first1 = G. | last2 = Jr | first2 = | last3 = Buckley | first3 = R. | year = 2006 | title = Nematode (Nematoda: Mermithidae) and hairworm (Nematomorpha: Chordodidae) parasites in Early Cretaceous amber | journal = Journal of Invertebrate Pathology | volume = 93 | issue = 1| pages = 36–41 | doi=10.1016/j.jip.2006.04.006}}</ref> lice found in the fur of guinea pig mummies,<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Dittmar | first1 = K | year = 2000 | title = Evaluation of ectoparasites on the guinea pig mummies of El Yaral and Moquegua Valley, in southern Peru | url = http://www.scielo.cl/scielo.php?pid=S0717-73562000000100020&script=sci_arttext | journal = [[Chungara (journal)|Chungara&nbsp;— Revista de Antropología Chilena]] | volume = 32 | issue = 1| pages = 123–125 }}</ref> protozoans in the alimentary canal of flies in amber,<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Poinar | first1 = G. | last2 = Jr | first2 = | last3 = Telford Jr | first3 = S.R. | year = 2005 | title = ''Paleohaemoproteus burmacis'' gen.n., sp.n. (Haemospororidia: Plasmodiidae) from an Early Cretaceous biting midge (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) | journal = Parasitology | volume = 131 | issue = 1| pages = 79–84 | doi=10.1017/S0031182005007298}}</ref><ref>Poinar, G., Jr. (2008) [http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/picrender.fcgi?artid=2491605&blobtype=pdf ''Lutzomyia adiketis'' sp.n. (Diptera: Phlebotomidae), a vector of ''Paleoleishmania neotropicum'' sp.n. (Kinetoplastida: Trypanosomatidae) in Dominican amber]. ''Parasites & Vectors'' 1:22 (8 pp.).</ref> [[Nematode|nematode larvae]] found embedded in animal coprolites,<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Ferreira | first1 = L.F. | last2 = Araújo | first2 = A. | last3 = Duarte | first3 = A.N. | year = 1993 | title = Nematode larvae in fossilized animal coprolites from Lower and Middle Pleistocene sites, central Italy | url = | journal = Journal of Parasitology | volume = 79 | issue = 3| pages = 440–442 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Toker | first1 = N.Y. | last2 = Onar | first2 = V. | last3 = Belli | first3 = O | last4 = Ak | first4 = S. | last5 = Alpak | first5 = H. | last6 = Konyar | first6 = E. | year = 2005 | title = Preliminary results of the analysis of coprolite material of a dog unearthed from the Van-Yoncatepe necropolis in eastern Anatolia | url = http://journals.tubitak.gov.tr/veterinary/issues/vet-05-29-3/vet-29-3-26-0312-2.pdf | format = PDF | journal = Turkish Journal of Veterinary and Animal Science | volume = 29 | issue = 6| pages = 759–765 }}</ref> and a mite caught in amber in the process of apparently feeding on a spider.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Wunderlich | first1 = J | year = 2004 | title = Fossil spiders (Araneae) of the superfamily Dysderoidea in Baltic and Dominican amber, with revised family diagnoses | url = | journal = Beiträge zur Araneologie | volume = 3A | issue = | pages = 633–746 }}</ref>


Fossil organisms which are related to present-day parasites often possess the [[Morphology (biology)|morphological]] features associated with a parasitic lifestyle, such as blood-feeding mouthparts.<ref>Nagler, C. and J. T. Haug (2015) [https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/bs.apar.2015.09.003 From Fossil Parasitoids to Vectors: Insects as Parasites and Hosts]. ''Advances in Parasitology'' 90:137-200.</ref> So fossil ticks<ref>De la Fuente, J. (2003) [http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/klu/appa/2003/00000029/F0020003/05122973 The fossil record and the origin of ticks (Acari: Parasitiformes: Ixodida)]. ''Experimental and Applied Acarology'' 29 (3-4): 331-344.</ref><ref>Poinar, G., Jr. and R. Buckley (2008) ''Compluriscutula vetulum'' (Acari: Ixodida: Ixodidae), a new genus and species of hard tick from Lower Cretaceous Burmese amber. ''Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington'' 110 (2): 445-450.</ref> and [[Hematophagy|hematophagous]] insects<ref>Lukashevich, E.D. and M.B. Mostovski (2003) [http://palaeoentomolog.ru/Publ/PALJ153.pdf Hematophagous insects in the fossil record]. ''Paleontologicheskii Zhurnal'' 2003(2):48-56 (Russian) / ''Paleontological Journal'' 37(2):153-161 (English).</ref><ref>Ponomarenko, A.G. (1976) A new insect from the Cretaceous of Transbaikalia, a possible parasite of pterosaurians. ''Paleontological Journal'' 10(3):339-343 (English) / ''Paleontologicheskii Zhurnal'' 1976(3):102-106 (Russian)</ref> are generally assumed to be ectoparasites, even when their remains are found in the absence of a host.
Fossil organisms which are related to present-day parasites often possess the [[Morphology (biology)|morphological]] features associated with a parasitic lifestyle, such as blood-feeding mouthparts.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Nagler | first1 = C. | last2 = Haug | first2 = J. T. | year = 2015 | title = From Fossil Parasitoids to Vectors: Insects as Parasites and Hosts | journal = Advances in Parasitology | volume = 90 | issue = | pages = 137–200 | doi=10.1016/bs.apar.2015.09.003}}</ref> So fossil ticks<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = De la Fuente | first1 = J | year = 2003 | title = The fossil record and the origin of ticks (Acari: Parasitiformes: Ixodida) | url = http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/klu/appa/2003/00000029/F0020003/05122973 | journal = Experimental and Applied Acarology | volume = 29 | issue = 3–4| pages = 331–344 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Poinar | first1 = G. | last2 = Jr | first2 = | last3 = Buckley | first3 = R. | year = 2008 | title = ''Compluriscutula vetulum'' (Acari: Ixodida: Ixodidae), a new genus and species of hard tick from Lower Cretaceous Burmese amber | url = | journal = Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington | volume = 110 | issue = 2| pages = 445–450 }}</ref> and [[Hematophagy|hematophagous]] insects<ref>Lukashevich, E.D. and M.B. Mostovski (2003) [http://palaeoentomolog.ru/Publ/PALJ153.pdf Hematophagous insects in the fossil record]. ''Paleontologicheskii Zhurnal'' 2003(2):48-56 (Russian) / ''Paleontological Journal'' 37(2):153-161 (English).</ref><ref>Ponomarenko, A.G. (1976) A new insect from the Cretaceous of Transbaikalia, a possible parasite of pterosaurians. ''Paleontological Journal'' 10(3):339-343 (English) / ''Paleontologicheskii Zhurnal'' 1976(3):102-106 (Russian)</ref> are generally assumed to be ectoparasites, even when their remains are found in the absence of a host.


The presence of structures resembling leaf miner trails in leaf fossils provide indirect evidence of parasitism, even if remains of the parasite are not recovered.<ref>Labandeira, C.C., D.L. Dilcher, D.R. Davis, and D.L. Wagner (1994) [http://www.pnas.org/content/91/25/12278.abstract Ninety-seven million years of angiosperm-insect association: Paleobiological insights into the meaning of coevolution]. ''Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America'' 91(25):12278-12282.</ref> The dramatic tissue aberrations seen in present-day plant [[gall]]s and gall-like structures in some invertebrates are direct physiological reactions to the presence of either [[Morphology (biology)|metazoan]] parasites or [[microbial]] [[pathogens]]. Similar structures seen in fossil plant<ref>Srivastava, A.K. (2007) Fossil evidences of gall-inducing arthropod-plant interactions in the Indian subcontinent. ''Oriental Insects'' 41:213-222.</ref> and invertebrate<ref>Neumann, C. and M. Wisshak (2006) [https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10420940600853954 A foraminiferal parasite on the sea urchin ''Echinocorys'': Ichnological evidence from the Late Cretaceous (Lower Maastrichtian, northern Germany)]. ''Ichnos'' 13(3):185-190.</ref> remains are often interpreted as evidence of paleoparasitism.
The presence of structures resembling leaf miner trails in leaf fossils provide indirect evidence of parasitism, even if remains of the parasite are not recovered.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Labandeira | first1 = C.C. | last2 = Dilcher | first2 = D.L. | last3 = Davis | first3 = D.R. | last4 = Wagner | first4 = D.L. | year = 1994 | title = Ninety-seven million years of angiosperm-insect association: Paleobiological insights into the meaning of coevolution | url = http://www.pnas.org/content/91/25/12278.abstract | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 91 | issue = 25| pages = 12278–12282 }}</ref> The dramatic tissue aberrations seen in present-day plant [[gall]]s and gall-like structures in some invertebrates are direct physiological reactions to the presence of either [[Morphology (biology)|metazoan]] parasites or [[microbial]] [[pathogens]]. Similar structures seen in fossil plant<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Srivastava | first1 = A.K. | year = 2007 | title = Fossil evidences of gall-inducing arthropod-plant interactions in the Indian subcontinent | url = | journal = Oriental Insects | volume = 41 | issue = | pages = 213–222 }}</ref> and invertebrate<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Neumann | first1 = C. | last2 = Wisshak | first2 = M. | year = 2006 | title = A foraminiferal parasite on the sea urchin ''Echinocorys'': Ichnological evidence from the Late Cretaceous (Lower Maastrichtian, northern Germany) | journal = Ichnos | volume = 13 | issue = 3| pages = 185–190 | doi=10.1080/10420940600853954}}</ref> remains are often interpreted as evidence of paleoparasitism.


Host-parasite interactions today are often exploited by other species, and similar examples have been found in the fossil record of plant galls and leaf mines. For example, there are species of wasps, called [[inquilines]], which are unable to induce their own plant galls, so they simply take up residence in the galls that are made by other wasps.<ref name="journals.royalsociety" /> Another example is the [[predation]] of plant galls or leaf mines, to eat the trapped insect larva inside the gall or mine.<ref>Krassilov, V. (2008) [https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2008.01.017 Mine and gall predation as top-down regulation in the plant-insect systems from the Cretaceous of Negev, Israel]. '' Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology'' 261(3-4):261-269.</ref>
Host-parasite interactions today are often exploited by other species, and similar examples have been found in the fossil record of plant galls and leaf mines. For example, there are species of wasps, called [[inquilines]], which are unable to induce their own plant galls, so they simply take up residence in the galls that are made by other wasps.<ref name="journals.royalsociety" /> Another example is the [[predation]] of plant galls or leaf mines, to eat the trapped insect larva inside the gall or mine.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Krassilov | first1 = V | year = 2008 | title = Mine and gall predation as top-down regulation in the plant-insect systems from the Cretaceous of Negev, Israel | journal = Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology | volume = 261 | issue = 3–4| pages = 261–269 | doi=10.1016/j.palaeo.2008.01.017}}</ref>


==Knowledge gained from ancient animal and plant parasites==
==Knowledge gained from ancient animal and plant parasites==


Studies of parasite remains and traces from the past have yielded a vast catalog of ancient host-parasite associations.<ref name="ConwayMorris" /><ref>Baumiller, T.K. and F.J. Gahn (2002) [http://www.yale.edu/ypmip/predation/Chapter_07.pdf Fossil record of parasitism on marine invertebrates with special emphasis on the platyceratid-crinoid interaction] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090126233552/http://yale.edu/ypmip/predation/Chapter_07.pdf |date=2009-01-26 }}. ''Paleontological Society Papers'' 8:195-209.</ref><ref>De Baets, K. and Littlewood, D. T. J. (2015) [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Kenneth_De_Baets/publication/280091402_The_Importance_of_Fossils_in_Understanding_the_Evolution_of_Parasites_and_Their_Vectors/links/55d4cf4e08ae6788fa352611.pdf The Importance of Fossils in Understanding the Evolution of Parasites and Their Vectors]. ''Advances in Parasitology'' 90:1-51. {{doi|10.1016/bs.apar.2015.07.001}}</ref><ref>Leung, T. L. F. (2016) [https://dx.doi.org/10.1111/brv.12238 Fossils of parasites: what can the fossil record tell us about the evolution of parasitism?]. ''Biological Reviews'' {{doi|10.1111/brv.12238}}</ref> Genetic sequence data obtained directly from ancient animal parasites,<ref>Dittmar, K., U. Mamat, M. Whiting, T. Goldmann, K. Reinhard and S. Guillen (2003) Techniques of DNA-studies on prehispanic ectoparasites (''Pulex'' sp., Pulicidae, Siphonaptera) from animal mummies of the Chiribaya culture, southern Peru. ''Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz'' 98(Suppl 1):53-58</ref> and inferences of past relationships based on genetic sequences of existing parasite groups are also being applied to paleoparasitological questions.<ref>Kerr, S.F. (2006) [http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0074-02762006000100006&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en Molecular trees of trypanosomes incongruent with fossil records of hosts]. ''Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz'' 101(1):25-30.</ref><ref>Stevens, J.R. and J.F. Wallman (2006) [https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pt.2006.01.008 The evolution of myiasis in humans and other animals in the Old and New Worlds. Part I. Phylogenetic analyses]. ''Trends in Parasitology'' 22(3):129-136.</ref> Data obtained by all of these methods are constantly improving our understanding of the origin and evolution of the parasites themselves<ref>Mu, J., J. Duan, K.D. Makova, D.A. Joy, C.Q. Huynh, O.H. Branch, W.-H. Li, and X.-Z. Su (2002) [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v418/n6895/abs/nature00836.html Chromosome-wide SNPs reveal an ancient origin for ''Plasmodium falciparum'']. ''Nature'' 418(6895):323-326.</ref> and their vectors,<ref>Black, W.C, IV (2003) Evolution of arthropod disease vectors. In: C.L. Greenblatt and M. Spigelman (eds) ''Emerging Pathogens: The Archaeology, Ecology, and Evolution of Infectious Disease''. Oxford University Press, pp. 49-63.</ref> and of the host-parasite and vector-parasite associations.<ref>Opler, P.A. (1973) [https://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.179.4080.1321 Fossil lepidopterous leaf mines demonstrate the age of some insect-plant relationships]. ''Science'' 179(4080):1321-1323.</ref><ref>Labandeira, C.C. (2006) [http://redalyc.uaemex.mx/pdf/505/50540401.pdf Four phases of plant-arthropod associations in deep time] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120406175017/http://redalyc.uaemex.mx/pdf/505/50540401.pdf |date=2012-04-06 }}. ''Geologica Acta'' 4(4):409-438.</ref><ref>Nel, A. and D. Azar (2005) [http://osuc.biosci.ohio-state.edu/hymDB/nomenclator.hlviewer?id=21133 The oldest parasitic Scelionidae: Teleasinae (Hymenoptera: Platygastroidea)]. ''Polskie Pismo Entomologiczne'' 74(3):333-338.</ref><ref>Sha, Z-L., C.-D. Zhu, R.W. Murphy, J. La Salle, and D.-W. Huang (2006) [http://10.1016/j.biocontrol.2008.05.009 Mitochondrial phylogeography of a leafminer parasitoid, ''Diglyphus isaea'' (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) in China]{{dead link|date=January 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}. ''Biological Control'' 38(3):380-389.</ref><ref>Poinar, G.O, Jr. (2007) The origins, acquisition and transmission of Leishmania in the distant past. ''Science and Culture'' 73:116-119.</ref>
Studies of parasite remains and traces from the past have yielded a vast catalog of ancient host-parasite associations.<ref name="ConwayMorris" /><ref>Baumiller, T.K. and F.J. Gahn (2002) [http://www.yale.edu/ypmip/predation/Chapter_07.pdf Fossil record of parasitism on marine invertebrates with special emphasis on the platyceratid-crinoid interaction] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090126233552/http://yale.edu/ypmip/predation/Chapter_07.pdf |date=2009-01-26 }}. ''Paleontological Society Papers'' 8:195-209.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = De Baets | first1 = K. | last2 = Littlewood | first2 = D. T. J. | year = 2015 | title = The Importance of Fossils in Understanding the Evolution of Parasites and Their Vectors | url = https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Kenneth_De_Baets/publication/280091402_The_Importance_of_Fossils_in_Understanding_the_Evolution_of_Parasites_and_Their_Vectors/links/55d4cf4e08ae6788fa352611.pdf | format = PDF | journal = Advances in Parasitology | volume = 90 | issue = | pages = 1–51 | doi = 10.1016/bs.apar.2015.07.001 }}</ref><ref>Leung, T. L. F. (2016) Fossils of parasites: what can the fossil record tell us about the evolution of parasitism? ''Biological Reviews'' {{doi|10.1111/brv.12238}}</ref> Genetic sequence data obtained directly from ancient animal parasites,<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Dittmar | first1 = K. | last2 = Mamat | first2 = U. | last3 = Whiting | first3 = M. | last4 = Goldmann | first4 = T. | last5 = Reinhard | first5 = K. | last6 = Guillen | first6 = S. | year = 2003 | title = Techniques of DNA-studies on prehispanic ectoparasites (''Pulex'' sp., Pulicidae, Siphonaptera) from animal mummies of the Chiribaya culture, southern Peru | url = | journal = Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz | volume = 98 | issue = Suppl 1| pages = 53–58 }}</ref> and inferences of past relationships based on genetic sequences of existing parasite groups are also being applied to paleoparasitological questions.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Kerr | first1 = S.F. | year = 2006 | title = Molecular trees of trypanosomes incongruent with fossil records of hosts | url = http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0074-02762006000100006&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en | journal = Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz | volume = 101 | issue = 1| pages = 25–30 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Stevens | first1 = J.R. | last2 = Wallman | first2 = J.F. | year = 2006 | title = The evolution of myiasis in humans and other animals in the Old and New Worlds. Part I. Phylogenetic analyses | journal = Trends in Parasitology | volume = 22 | issue = 3| pages = 129–136 | doi=10.1016/j.pt.2006.01.008}}</ref> Data obtained by all of these methods are constantly improving our understanding of the origin and evolution of the parasites themselves<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Mu | first1 = J. | last2 = Duan | first2 = J. | last3 = Makova | first3 = K.D. | last4 = Joy | first4 = D.A. | last5 = Huynh | first5 = C.Q. | last6 = Branch | first6 = O.H. | last7 = Li | first7 = W.-H. | last8 = Su | first8 = X.-Z. | year = 2002 | title = ''Chromosome-wide SNPs reveal an ancient origin for ''Plasmodium falciparum | url = http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v418/n6895/abs/nature00836.html | journal = Nature | volume = 418 | issue = 6895| pages = 323–326 | doi=10.1038/nature00836}}</ref> and their vectors,<ref>Black, W.C, IV (2003) Evolution of arthropod disease vectors. In: C.L. Greenblatt and M. Spigelman (eds) ''Emerging Pathogens: The Archaeology, Ecology, and Evolution of Infectious Disease''. Oxford University Press, pp. 49-63.</ref> and of the host-parasite and vector-parasite associations.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Opler | first1 = P.A. | year = 1973 | title = Fossil lepidopterous leaf mines demonstrate the age of some insect-plant relationships | journal = Science | volume = 179 | issue = 4080| pages = 1321–1323 | doi=10.1126/science.179.4080.1321}}</ref><ref>Labandeira, C.C. (2006) [http://redalyc.uaemex.mx/pdf/505/50540401.pdf Four phases of plant-arthropod associations in deep time] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120406175017/http://redalyc.uaemex.mx/pdf/505/50540401.pdf |date=2012-04-06 }}. ''Geologica Acta'' 4(4):409-438.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Nel | first1 = A. | last2 = Azar | first2 = D. | year = 2005 | title = The oldest parasitic Scelionidae: Teleasinae (Hymenoptera: Platygastroidea) | url = http://osuc.biosci.ohio-state.edu/hymDB/nomenclator.hlviewer?id=21133 | journal = Polskie Pismo Entomologiczne | volume = 74 | issue = 3| pages = 333–338 }}</ref><ref>Sha, Z-L., C.-D. Zhu, R.W. Murphy, J. La Salle, and D.-W. Huang (2006) [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biocontrol.2008.05.009 Mitochondrial phylogeography of a leafminer parasitoid, ''Diglyphus isaea'' (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) in China] ''Biological Control'' 38(3):380-389.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Poinar | first1 = G.O Jr | year = 2007 | title = The origins, acquisition and transmission of Leishmania in the distant past | url = | journal = Science and Culture | volume = 73 | issue = | pages = 116–119 }}</ref>


In some cases, presumed host-parasite relationships of the past seem quite different from those known in the present, such as a fly which appears to be a parasite of a [[mite]]<ref>Kerr, P.H. and S.L. Winterton (2008) [http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/bsc/bij/2008/00000093/00000001/art00002 Do parasitic flies attack mites? Evidence in Baltic amber]. ''Biological Journal of the Linnean Society'' 93(1):9-13.</ref>
In some cases, presumed host-parasite relationships of the past seem quite different from those known in the present, such as a fly which appears to be a parasite of a [[mite]]<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Kerr | first1 = P.H. | last2 = Winterton | first2 = S.L. | year = 2008 | title = Do parasitic flies attack mites? Evidence in Baltic amber | url = http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/bsc/bij/2008/00000093/00000001/art00002 | journal = Biological Journal of the Linnean Society | volume = 93 | issue = 1| pages = 9–13 | doi=10.1111/j.1095-8312.2007.00935.x}}</ref>


Paleoparasitological studies have also provided insight into questions outside the realm of parasitology. Examples include the migration and phylogeography of marine mammal hosts,<ref>Bianucci, G., W. Landini and J. Buckeridge (2006) [http://www.royalsociety.org.nz/Site/publish/Journals/nzjgg/2006/009.aspx Whale barnacles and Neogene cetacean migration routes] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090217134226/http://royalsociety.org.nz/Site/publish/Journals/nzjgg/2006/009.aspx |date=2009-02-17 }}. ''New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics'' 49(1):115-120.</ref> the identity of domestic animal bones based on the known hosts of parasite remains found at the site,<ref>Schelvis, J. and C. Koot (1995) Sheep or goat? ''Damalinia'' deals with the dilemma. ''Proceedings of Experimental and Applied Entomology of the Netherlands Entomological Society'' 6:161-162</ref> and the possible role of climatic changes on animal host genetic diversity.<ref>Baker, B.W. (2007) Parasitism as a potential factor in reduced genetic variability in Late-Quaternary musk ox (''Ovibos moschatus''). ''Current Research in the Pleistocene'' 24:159-162.</ref>
Paleoparasitological studies have also provided insight into questions outside the realm of parasitology. Examples include the migration and phylogeography of marine mammal hosts,<ref>Bianucci, G., W. Landini and J. Buckeridge (2006) [http://www.royalsociety.org.nz/Site/publish/Journals/nzjgg/2006/009.aspx Whale barnacles and Neogene cetacean migration routes] ''New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics'' 49(1):115-120.</ref> the identity of domestic animal bones based on the known hosts of parasite remains found at the site,<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Schelvis | first1 = J. | last2 = Koot | first2 = C. | year = 1995 | title = Sheep or goat? ''Damalinia'' deals with the dilemma | url = | journal = Proceedings of Experimental and Applied Entomology of the Netherlands Entomological Society | volume = 6 | issue = | pages = 161–162 }}</ref> and the possible role of climatic changes on animal host genetic diversity.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Baker | first1 = B.W. | year = 2007 | title = Parasitism as a potential factor in reduced genetic variability in Late-Quaternary musk ox (''Ovibos moschatus'') | url = | journal = Current Research in the Pleistocene | volume = 24 | issue = | pages = 159–162 }}</ref>


==References==
==References==

Revision as of 16:29, 17 March 2018

Paleoparasitology (or "palaeoparasitology") is the study of parasites from the past,[1] and their interactions with hosts and vectors; it is a subfield of Paleontology, the study of living organisms from the past. Some authors define this term more narrowly, as "Paleoparasitology is the study of parasites in archaeological material." (p. 103)[2] K.J. Reinhard suggests that the term "archaeoparasitology" be applied to "... all parasitological remains excavated from archaeological contexts ... derived from human activity" and that "the term 'paleoparasitology' be applied to studies of nonhuman, paleontological material." (p. 233)[3] This article follows Reinhard's suggestion and discusses the protozoan and animal parasites of non-human animals and plants from the past, while those from humans and our hominid ancestors are covered in archaeoparasitology.

Sources of material

Cysts found in a corpse in a late Roman grave in France, interpreted [4] as signs of probable hydatidosis and capillariasis

The primary sources of paleoparasitological material include mummified tissues,[5][4][6] coprolites (fossilised dung) from mammals[7] or dinosaurs,[8] fossils,[9] and amber inclusions.[10] Hair,[11] skins,[12] and feathers[13] also yield ectoparasite remains. Some archaeological artifacts document the presence of animal parasites. One example is the depiction of what appear to be mites in the ear of a "hyaena-like" animal in a tomb painting from ancient Thebes.[14]

Some parasites leave marks or traces (ichnofossils) on host remains, which persist in the fossil record in the absence of structural remains of the parasite. Parasitic ichnofossils include plant remains which exhibit characteristic signs of parasitic insect infestation, such as galls or leaf mines[15][16][17][18] and certain anomalies seen in invertebrate endoskeletal remains.[19][20][21][22][23][24]

Plant and animal parasites have been found in samples from a broad spectrum of geological periods, including the Holocene (samples over 10,000 years old),[25] Pleistocene (over 550,000 years old),[26] Eocene (over 44 million years old),[27] Cretaceous (over 100 million years)[28] and even Lower Cambrian (over 500 million years).[29]

Evidence of parasitism

One of the most daunting tasks involved in studying parasitic relationships from the past is supporting the assertion that the relationship between two organisms is indeed parasitic.[30] Organisms living in "close association" with each other may exhibit one of several different types of trophic relationships, such as parasitism, mutualism, and commensalism. Demonstration of true parasitism between existing species typically involves observing the harmful effects of parasites on a presumed host. Experimental infection of the presumed host, followed by recovery of viable parasites from that host also supports any claim of true parasitism. Obviously such experiments are not possible with specimens of extinct organisms found in paleontological contexts.

Assumptions of true parasitism in paleontological settings which are based on analogy to known present-day parasitic relationships may not be valid, due to host-specificity. For example, Trypanosoma brucei gambiense and Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense are both devastating human parasites, but the related subspecies Trypanosoma brucei brucei will infect a number of animal hosts, but cannot even survive in the human blood stream, much less reproduce and infect a human host.[31] So a related (or unidentifiable) species of Trypanosoma found in a paleontological or archaeological context may not be a true human parasite, even though it appears identical (or very similar) to the modern parasitic forms.

The most convincing evidence of paleoparasitism is obtained when a presumed parasite is found in direct association with its presumed host, in a context that is consistent with known host-parasite associations. Some examples include helminths caught in amber in the process of escaping from the body of an insect,[32] lice found in the fur of guinea pig mummies,[33] protozoans in the alimentary canal of flies in amber,[34][35] nematode larvae found embedded in animal coprolites,[36][37] and a mite caught in amber in the process of apparently feeding on a spider.[38]

Fossil organisms which are related to present-day parasites often possess the morphological features associated with a parasitic lifestyle, such as blood-feeding mouthparts.[39] So fossil ticks[40][41] and hematophagous insects[42][43] are generally assumed to be ectoparasites, even when their remains are found in the absence of a host.

The presence of structures resembling leaf miner trails in leaf fossils provide indirect evidence of parasitism, even if remains of the parasite are not recovered.[44] The dramatic tissue aberrations seen in present-day plant galls and gall-like structures in some invertebrates are direct physiological reactions to the presence of either metazoan parasites or microbial pathogens. Similar structures seen in fossil plant[45] and invertebrate[46] remains are often interpreted as evidence of paleoparasitism.

Host-parasite interactions today are often exploited by other species, and similar examples have been found in the fossil record of plant galls and leaf mines. For example, there are species of wasps, called inquilines, which are unable to induce their own plant galls, so they simply take up residence in the galls that are made by other wasps.[18] Another example is the predation of plant galls or leaf mines, to eat the trapped insect larva inside the gall or mine.[47]

Knowledge gained from ancient animal and plant parasites

Studies of parasite remains and traces from the past have yielded a vast catalog of ancient host-parasite associations.[9][48][49][50] Genetic sequence data obtained directly from ancient animal parasites,[51] and inferences of past relationships based on genetic sequences of existing parasite groups are also being applied to paleoparasitological questions.[52][53] Data obtained by all of these methods are constantly improving our understanding of the origin and evolution of the parasites themselves[54] and their vectors,[55] and of the host-parasite and vector-parasite associations.[56][57][58][59][60]

In some cases, presumed host-parasite relationships of the past seem quite different from those known in the present, such as a fly which appears to be a parasite of a mite[61]

Paleoparasitological studies have also provided insight into questions outside the realm of parasitology. Examples include the migration and phylogeography of marine mammal hosts,[62] the identity of domestic animal bones based on the known hosts of parasite remains found at the site,[63] and the possible role of climatic changes on animal host genetic diversity.[64]

References

  1. ^ Araújo, A.; Reinhard, K.; Ferreira, L. F. (2015). "Palaeoparasitology - Human Parasites in Ancient Material". Advances in Parasitology. 90: 349–387. doi:10.1016/bs.apar.2015.03.003.
  2. ^ Gonçalves, M.L.C.; Araújo, A.; Ferreira, L.F. (2003). "Human intestinal parasites in the past: New findings and a review". Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz. 98 (Suppl 1): 103–118.
  3. ^ Reinhard, K.J. (1992). "Parasitology as an interpretive tool in archaeology". American Antiquity. 57 (2): 231–245.
  4. ^ a b Mowlavi, G.; Kacki, S.; Dupouy-Camet, J.; Mobedi, I.; Makki, M.; Harandi, MF.; Naddaf, SR. (2014). "Probable hepatic capillariosis and hydatidosis in an adolescent from the late Roman period buried in Amiens (France)". Parasite. 21: 9. doi:10.1051/parasite/2014010. PMC 3936287. PMID 24572211. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help) Open access icon
  5. ^ Nezamabadi M, Mashkour M, Aali A, Stöllner T, Le Bailly M (2013). "IDENTIFICATION OF TAENIA SP. IN A NATURAL HUMAN MUMMY (3RD CENTURY BC) FROM THE CHEHRABAD SALT MINE IN IRAN". The Journal of Parasitology. 99: 570–572. doi:10.1645/12-113.1.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  6. ^ Dittmar; de la Cruz, K.; Ribbeck, R.; Daugschies, A. (2003). "Paläoparasitologische Analyse von Meerschweinchenmumien der Chiribaya-Kultur (900-1100 AD)". Berliner und Münchener Tierärztliche Wochenschrift. 116 (1–2): 45–49.
  7. ^ Schmidt, G.D.; Duszynski, D.W.; Martin, P.S. (1992). "Parasites of the extinct Shasta ground sloth, Nothrotheriops shastensis, in Rampart Cave, Arizona". Journal of Parasitology. 78 (5): 811–816.
  8. ^ Poinar, G., Jr. and A.J. Boucot (2006) Evidence of intestinal parasites in dinosaurs[permanent dead link]. Parasitology 133(2):245-249.
  9. ^ a b Conway Morris, S (1981). "Parasites and the fossil record". Parasitology. 82 (3): 489–509.
  10. ^ Poinar, G.O., Jr. and R. Poinar (1999) The Amber Forest: A Reconstruction of a Vanished World. Princeton University Press, xviii, 239 pp.
  11. ^ Penalver, E.; Grimaldi, D. (2005). "Assemblages of mammalian hair and blood-feeding midges (Insecta: Diptera: Psychodidae: Phlebotominae) in Miocene amber". Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh: Earth Sciences. 96: 177–195. doi:10.1017/S0263593300001292.
  12. ^ Mey E. (2005) Psittacobrosus bechsteini: A new extinct chewing louse (Insecta, Phthiraptera, Amblycera) off the Cuban macaw Ara tricolor (Psittaciiformes), with an annotated review of fossil and recently extinct animal lice[permanent dead link]. Anzeiger des Vereins Thueringer Ornithologen 5(2):201-217.
  13. ^ Martill, D.M.; Davis, P.G. (2001). "A feather with possible ectoparasite eggs from the Crato Formation (Lower Cretaceous, Aptian) of Brazil". Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Palaeontologie Abhandlungen. 219 (3): 241–259.
  14. ^ Arthur, D.R. (1965). "Ticks in Egypt in 1500 B.C.?". Nature. 206 (4988): 1060–1061. doi:10.1038/2061060a0.
  15. ^ Scott, A.C., J. Stephenson, and M.E. Collinson (1994) The fossil record of leaves with galls[permanent dead link]. In: M.A.J. Williams (ed) Plant Gall - Organisms, Interactions, and Populations. Systematics Association Special Volume Series, Vol. 49. Clarendon Press: Oxford, pp. 447-470.
  16. ^ Woodcock, D.W.; Maekawa, S. (2006). "Fossil leaf galls preserved in Honolulu volcanic series rocks". Bishop Museum Occasional Papers. 88: 20–22.
  17. ^ Erwin, D.M.; Schick, K.N. (2007). "New Miocene oak galls (Cynipini) and their bearing on the history of cynipid wasps in western North America". Journal of Paleontology. 81 (3): 568–580.
  18. ^ a b Stone, G.N., R.W.J.M. van der Ham, and J.G. Brewer (2008) Fossil oak galls preserve ancient multitrophic interactions[permanent dead link]. Proceedings of the Royal Society, Series B. Biological Sciences 275(1648):2213-2219.
  19. ^ Ruiz, G.M.; Lindberg, D.R. (1989). "A fossil record for trematodes: Extent and potential uses". Lethaia. 22: 431–438.
  20. ^ Radwanska, U. and A. Radwanski (2005) Myzostomid and copepod infestation of Jurassic echinoderms: A general approach, some new occurrences, and/or re-interpretation of previous reports Archived 2006-05-04 at the Wayback Machine. Acta Geologica Polonica 55(2):109-130.
  21. ^ Huntley, J. W.; De Baets, K. (2015). "Trace Fossil Evidence of Trematode—Bivalve Parasite—Host Interactions in Deep Time" (PDF). Advances in Parasitology. 90: 201–231. doi:10.1016/bs.apar.2015.05.004.
  22. ^ Donovan, S. K. (2015). "A Prejudiced Review of Ancient Parasites and Their Host Echinoderms: CSI Fossil Record or Just an Excuse for Speculation?". Advances in Parasitology. 90: 291–328. doi:10.1016/bs.apar.2015.05.003.
  23. ^ Klompmaker, A.A.; Boxshall, G.A. (2015). "Fossil Crustaceans as Parasites and Hosts". Advances in Parasitology. 90: 233–289. doi:10.1016/bs.apar.2015.06.001.
  24. ^ Taylor, P. D. (2015). "Differentiating Parasitism and Other Interactions in Fossilized Colonial Organisms". Advances in Parasitology. 90: 329–347. doi:10.1016/bs.apar.2015.05.002.
  25. ^ Larew, H.G. (1987). "Two cynipid wasp acorn galls preserved in the La Brea Tar Pits (early Holocene)". Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington. 89 (4): 831–833.
  26. ^ Jouy-Avantin, F.; Combes, C.; Lumley, H.; Miskovsky, J.-C.; Moné, H. (1999). "Helminth eggs in animal coprolites from a Middle Pleistocene site in Europe". Journal of Parasitology. 85 (2): 376–379.
  27. ^ Wappler, T., V.S. Smith, and R.C. Dalgleish (2004) Scratching an ancient itch: An Eocene bird louse fossil. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B. Biological Sciences 271(Suppl 5):s255-s258.
  28. ^ Poinar, G.; Jr; Telford Jr, S.R. (2005). "Paleohaemoproteus burmacis gen.n., sp.n. (Haemosporidia: Plasmodidae) from an Early Cretaceous biting midge (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae)". Parasitology. 131 (1): 79–84.
  29. ^ Bassett, M.G.; Popov, L.E.; Holmer, L.E. (2004). "The oldest-known metazoan parasite?". Journal of Paleontology. 78 (6): 1214–1216.
  30. ^ Littlewood, D.T.J.; Donovan, S.K. (2003). "Fossil parasites: A case of identity". Geology Today. 19 (4): 136–142. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2451.2003.00406.x.
  31. ^ Pays, E.; Vanhollebeke, B. (2008). "Mutual self-defence: The trypanolytic factor story". Microbes and Infection. 10 (9): 985–989. doi:10.1016/j.micinf.2008.07.020.
  32. ^ Poinar, G.; Jr; Buckley, R. (2006). "Nematode (Nematoda: Mermithidae) and hairworm (Nematomorpha: Chordodidae) parasites in Early Cretaceous amber". Journal of Invertebrate Pathology. 93 (1): 36–41. doi:10.1016/j.jip.2006.04.006.
  33. ^ Dittmar, K (2000). "Evaluation of ectoparasites on the guinea pig mummies of El Yaral and Moquegua Valley, in southern Peru". Chungara — Revista de Antropología Chilena. 32 (1): 123–125.
  34. ^ Poinar, G.; Jr; Telford Jr, S.R. (2005). "Paleohaemoproteus burmacis gen.n., sp.n. (Haemospororidia: Plasmodiidae) from an Early Cretaceous biting midge (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae)". Parasitology. 131 (1): 79–84. doi:10.1017/S0031182005007298.
  35. ^ Poinar, G., Jr. (2008) Lutzomyia adiketis sp.n. (Diptera: Phlebotomidae), a vector of Paleoleishmania neotropicum sp.n. (Kinetoplastida: Trypanosomatidae) in Dominican amber. Parasites & Vectors 1:22 (8 pp.).
  36. ^ Ferreira, L.F.; Araújo, A.; Duarte, A.N. (1993). "Nematode larvae in fossilized animal coprolites from Lower and Middle Pleistocene sites, central Italy". Journal of Parasitology. 79 (3): 440–442.
  37. ^ Toker, N.Y.; Onar, V.; Belli, O; Ak, S.; Alpak, H.; Konyar, E. (2005). "Preliminary results of the analysis of coprolite material of a dog unearthed from the Van-Yoncatepe necropolis in eastern Anatolia" (PDF). Turkish Journal of Veterinary and Animal Science. 29 (6): 759–765.
  38. ^ Wunderlich, J (2004). "Fossil spiders (Araneae) of the superfamily Dysderoidea in Baltic and Dominican amber, with revised family diagnoses". Beiträge zur Araneologie. 3A: 633–746.
  39. ^ Nagler, C.; Haug, J. T. (2015). "From Fossil Parasitoids to Vectors: Insects as Parasites and Hosts". Advances in Parasitology. 90: 137–200. doi:10.1016/bs.apar.2015.09.003.
  40. ^ De la Fuente, J (2003). "The fossil record and the origin of ticks (Acari: Parasitiformes: Ixodida)". Experimental and Applied Acarology. 29 (3–4): 331–344.
  41. ^ Poinar, G.; Jr; Buckley, R. (2008). "Compluriscutula vetulum (Acari: Ixodida: Ixodidae), a new genus and species of hard tick from Lower Cretaceous Burmese amber". Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington. 110 (2): 445–450.
  42. ^ Lukashevich, E.D. and M.B. Mostovski (2003) Hematophagous insects in the fossil record. Paleontologicheskii Zhurnal 2003(2):48-56 (Russian) / Paleontological Journal 37(2):153-161 (English).
  43. ^ Ponomarenko, A.G. (1976) A new insect from the Cretaceous of Transbaikalia, a possible parasite of pterosaurians. Paleontological Journal 10(3):339-343 (English) / Paleontologicheskii Zhurnal 1976(3):102-106 (Russian)
  44. ^ Labandeira, C.C.; Dilcher, D.L.; Davis, D.R.; Wagner, D.L. (1994). "Ninety-seven million years of angiosperm-insect association: Paleobiological insights into the meaning of coevolution". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 91 (25): 12278–12282.
  45. ^ Srivastava, A.K. (2007). "Fossil evidences of gall-inducing arthropod-plant interactions in the Indian subcontinent". Oriental Insects. 41: 213–222.
  46. ^ Neumann, C.; Wisshak, M. (2006). "A foraminiferal parasite on the sea urchin Echinocorys: Ichnological evidence from the Late Cretaceous (Lower Maastrichtian, northern Germany)". Ichnos. 13 (3): 185–190. doi:10.1080/10420940600853954.
  47. ^ Krassilov, V (2008). "Mine and gall predation as top-down regulation in the plant-insect systems from the Cretaceous of Negev, Israel". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 261 (3–4): 261–269. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2008.01.017.
  48. ^ Baumiller, T.K. and F.J. Gahn (2002) Fossil record of parasitism on marine invertebrates with special emphasis on the platyceratid-crinoid interaction Archived 2009-01-26 at the Wayback Machine. Paleontological Society Papers 8:195-209.
  49. ^ De Baets, K.; Littlewood, D. T. J. (2015). "The Importance of Fossils in Understanding the Evolution of Parasites and Their Vectors" (PDF). Advances in Parasitology. 90: 1–51. doi:10.1016/bs.apar.2015.07.001.
  50. ^ Leung, T. L. F. (2016) Fossils of parasites: what can the fossil record tell us about the evolution of parasitism? Biological Reviews doi:10.1111/brv.12238
  51. ^ Dittmar, K.; Mamat, U.; Whiting, M.; Goldmann, T.; Reinhard, K.; Guillen, S. (2003). "Techniques of DNA-studies on prehispanic ectoparasites (Pulex sp., Pulicidae, Siphonaptera) from animal mummies of the Chiribaya culture, southern Peru". Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz. 98 (Suppl 1): 53–58.
  52. ^ Kerr, S.F. (2006). "Molecular trees of trypanosomes incongruent with fossil records of hosts". Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz. 101 (1): 25–30.
  53. ^ Stevens, J.R.; Wallman, J.F. (2006). "The evolution of myiasis in humans and other animals in the Old and New Worlds. Part I. Phylogenetic analyses". Trends in Parasitology. 22 (3): 129–136. doi:10.1016/j.pt.2006.01.008.
  54. ^ Mu, J.; Duan, J.; Makova, K.D.; Joy, D.A.; Huynh, C.Q.; Branch, O.H.; Li, W.-H.; Su, X.-Z. (2002). "Chromosome-wide SNPs reveal an ancient origin for Plasmodium falciparum". Nature. 418 (6895): 323–326. doi:10.1038/nature00836.
  55. ^ Black, W.C, IV (2003) Evolution of arthropod disease vectors. In: C.L. Greenblatt and M. Spigelman (eds) Emerging Pathogens: The Archaeology, Ecology, and Evolution of Infectious Disease. Oxford University Press, pp. 49-63.
  56. ^ Opler, P.A. (1973). "Fossil lepidopterous leaf mines demonstrate the age of some insect-plant relationships". Science. 179 (4080): 1321–1323. doi:10.1126/science.179.4080.1321.
  57. ^ Labandeira, C.C. (2006) Four phases of plant-arthropod associations in deep time Archived 2012-04-06 at the Wayback Machine. Geologica Acta 4(4):409-438.
  58. ^ Nel, A.; Azar, D. (2005). "The oldest parasitic Scelionidae: Teleasinae (Hymenoptera: Platygastroidea)". Polskie Pismo Entomologiczne. 74 (3): 333–338.
  59. ^ Sha, Z-L., C.-D. Zhu, R.W. Murphy, J. La Salle, and D.-W. Huang (2006) Mitochondrial phylogeography of a leafminer parasitoid, Diglyphus isaea (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) in China Biological Control 38(3):380-389.
  60. ^ Poinar, G.O Jr (2007). "The origins, acquisition and transmission of Leishmania in the distant past". Science and Culture. 73: 116–119.
  61. ^ Kerr, P.H.; Winterton, S.L. (2008). "Do parasitic flies attack mites? Evidence in Baltic amber". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 93 (1): 9–13. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2007.00935.x.
  62. ^ Bianucci, G., W. Landini and J. Buckeridge (2006) Whale barnacles and Neogene cetacean migration routes New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics 49(1):115-120.
  63. ^ Schelvis, J.; Koot, C. (1995). "Sheep or goat? Damalinia deals with the dilemma". Proceedings of Experimental and Applied Entomology of the Netherlands Entomological Society. 6: 161–162.
  64. ^ Baker, B.W. (2007). "Parasitism as a potential factor in reduced genetic variability in Late-Quaternary musk ox (Ovibos moschatus)". Current Research in the Pleistocene. 24: 159–162.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Paleoparasitology&oldid=830906538"