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The '''culture of violence theory''' addresses the pervasiveness of specific violent patterns within in a societal dimension.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Galtung|first=Johan|date=2016-07-01|title=Cultural Violence |
The '''culture of violence theory''' addresses the pervasiveness of specific violent patterns within in a societal dimension.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Galtung|first=Johan|date=2016-07-01|title=Cultural Violence|journal=Journal of Peace Research|language=en|volume=27|issue=3|pages=291–305|doi=10.1177/0022343390027003005}}</ref> The concept of violence being ingrained in Western society and culture has been around for at least the past century.<ref name=":0" /> Developed from [[structural violence]], as research progressed the notion that a culture can sanction violent acts developed into what we know as culture of violence theory today.<ref name=":0" /> Two prominent examples of culture legitimizing violence can be seen in [[rape myth]]s and [[victim blaming]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Suarez|first=Eliana|last2=Gadalla|first2=Tahany M.|date=2010-01-11|title=Stop Blaming the Victim: A Meta-Analysis on Rape Myths|journal=Journal of Interpersonal Violence|language=en|volume=25|issue=11|pages=2010–2035|doi=10.1177/0886260509354503|pmid=20065313}}</ref> Rape myths lead to misconstrued notions of blame; it is common for the responsibility associated with the rape to be placed on the victim rather than the offender.<ref name=":1" /> |
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Furthermore, the culture of violence theory potentially accounts for inter-generational theories of violence and domestic violence.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Stith|first=Sandra M.|last2=Rosen|first2=Karen H.|last3=Middleton|first3=Kimberly A.|last4=Busch|first4=Amy L.|last5=Lundeberg|first5=Kirsten|last6=Carlton|first6=Russell P.|date=2000-08-01|title=The Intergenerational Transmission of Spouse Abuse: A Meta-Analysis |
Furthermore, the culture of violence theory potentially accounts for inter-generational theories of violence and domestic violence.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Stith|first=Sandra M.|last2=Rosen|first2=Karen H.|last3=Middleton|first3=Kimberly A.|last4=Busch|first4=Amy L.|last5=Lundeberg|first5=Kirsten|last6=Carlton|first6=Russell P.|date=2000-08-01|title=The Intergenerational Transmission of Spouse Abuse: A Meta-Analysis|journal=Journal of Marriage and Family|language=en|volume=62|issue=3|pages=640–654|doi=10.1111/j.1741-3737.2000.00640.x|issn=1741-3737}}</ref> Childhood exposure to violence in the household may later lead to similar patterns in marital relations.<ref name=":2" /> Similarly, early experience with domestic violence is likely to increase an individual's potential for development of clinical symptoms.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Mandelli|first=L.|last2=Petrelli|first2=C.|last3=Serretti|first3=A.|title=The role of specific early trauma in adult depression: A meta-analysis of published literature. Childhood trauma and adult depression|url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0924933815000942|journal=European Psychiatry|volume=30|issue=6|pages=665–680|doi=10.1016/j.eurpsy.2015.04.007|pmid=26078093|date=September 2015}}</ref> Additionally, presence of a preexisting mental disorder may heighten the chances of becoming involved in an abusive relationship.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Trevillion|first=Kylee|last2=Oram|first2=Siân|last3=Feder|first3=Gene|last4=Howard|first4=Louise M.|date=2012-12-26|title=Experiences of Domestic Violence and Mental Disorders: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=7|issue=12|pages=e51740|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0051740|pmid=23300562|issn=1932-6203}}</ref> |
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There are many factors which contribute to the persistence of violence among individuals and on a societal level; gender is one relevant factor to understanding the culture of violence theory.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Swan|first=Suzanne C.|last2=Snow|first2=David L.|date=2016-06-30|title=The Development of a Theory of |
There are many factors which contribute to the persistence of violence among individuals and on a societal level; gender is one relevant factor to understanding the culture of violence theory.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Swan|first=Suzanne C.|last2=Snow|first2=David L.|date=2016-06-30|title=The Development of a Theory of Women's Use of Violence in Intimate Relationships|journal=Violence Against Women|language=en|volume=12|issue=11|pages=1026–1045|doi=10.1177/1077801206293330|pmid=17043365}}</ref> In the United States, a majority of reported rapes involve female victims.<ref name=":1" /> However, there is a growing body of evidence to support the notion that women can perpetuate relational cycles of violence.<ref name=":4" /> While a culture of violence has an impact on people as a whole, for individuals who have experienced trauma in their lives the impact can be much larger.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ungar|first=Michael|date=2013-05-03|title=Resilience, Trauma, Context, and Culture|journal=Trauma, Violence, & Abuse|language=en|volume=14|issue=3|pages=255–266|doi=10.1177/1524838013487805|pmid=23645297}}</ref> |
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== Development of the theory == |
== Development of the theory == |
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As mentioned previously the culture of violence theory addresses the pervasiveness of specific violent patterns within in a societal dimension.<ref name=":0" /> Specifically, culture of violence theory explains how cultures and societies can sanction violent acts.<ref name=":0" /> While related to [[structural violence]], cultural violence theory is different by explaining why direct acts of violence or violence built into systems of society exists and how they are legitimized.<ref name=":0" /> Research suggests that cultures can encourage and permit violence to exist as a response to various environmental obstacles, such as widespread resource impoverishment.<ref name=":5">{{Cite |
As mentioned previously the culture of violence theory addresses the pervasiveness of specific violent patterns within in a societal dimension.<ref name=":0" /> Specifically, culture of violence theory explains how cultures and societies can sanction violent acts.<ref name=":0" /> While related to [[structural violence]], cultural violence theory is different by explaining why direct acts of violence or violence built into systems of society exists and how they are legitimized.<ref name=":0" /> Research suggests that cultures can encourage and permit violence to exist as a response to various environmental obstacles, such as widespread resource impoverishment.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|url=http://oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199738403.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199738403-e-13|title=Culture of Honor, Violence, and Homicide|journal=The Oxford Handbook of Evolutionary Perspectives on Violence, Homicide, and War|last=Brown|first=Ryan P.|last2=Osterman|first2=Lindsey L.|date=2012-07-20|language=en|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199738403.013.0013}}</ref> This can be seen within various aspects of culture, such as film, television, music, language, art, and propaganda.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Ph.D|first=LeeAnn Kahlor|last2=Ph.D|first2=Matthew S. Eastin|date=2011-05-25|title=Television's Role in the Culture of Violence Toward Women: A Study of Television Viewing and the Cultivation of Rape Myth Acceptance in the United States|journal=Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media|volume=55|issue=2|pages=215–231|doi=10.1080/08838151.2011.566085|issn=0883-8151}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ferguson|first=Christopher J.|last2=Beresin|first2=Eugene|title=Social science's curious war with pop culture and how it was lost: The media violence debate and the risks it holds for social science|url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0091743517300579|journal=Preventive Medicine|volume=99|pages=69–76|doi=10.1016/j.ypmed.2017.02.009|pmid=28212816|year=2017}}</ref> |
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== Relation to cultural values in the United States == |
== Relation to cultural values in the United States == |
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=== Violence in relationships === |
=== Violence in relationships === |
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Violence in relationships, commonly referred to as intimate partner violence (IPV), is impacted by various factors including the presence of mental illness or use of substances.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Oram|first=S.|last2=Trevillion|first2=K.|last3=Khalifeh|first3=H.|last4=Feder|first4=G.|last5=Howard|first5=L. M.|date=December 2014|title=Systematic review and meta-analysis of psychiatric disorder and the perpetration of partner violence|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/epidemiology-and-psychiatric-sciences/article/systematic-review-and-metaanalysis-of-psychiatric-disorder-and-the-perpetration-of-partner-violence/09993DA57711032BD47895869F5BF0C4|journal=Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences|volume=23|issue=4|pages=361–376|doi=10.1017/s2045796013000450|issn=2045-7960}}</ref><ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Crane|first=Cory A.|last2=Hawes|first2=Samuel W.|last3=Weinberger|first3=Andrea H.|date=2013-07-22|title=Intimate Partner Violence Victimization and Cigarette Smoking |
Violence in relationships, commonly referred to as intimate partner violence (IPV), is impacted by various factors including the presence of mental illness or use of substances.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Oram|first=S.|last2=Trevillion|first2=K.|last3=Khalifeh|first3=H.|last4=Feder|first4=G.|last5=Howard|first5=L. M.|date=December 2014|title=Systematic review and meta-analysis of psychiatric disorder and the perpetration of partner violence|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/epidemiology-and-psychiatric-sciences/article/systematic-review-and-metaanalysis-of-psychiatric-disorder-and-the-perpetration-of-partner-violence/09993DA57711032BD47895869F5BF0C4|journal=Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences|volume=23|issue=4|pages=361–376|doi=10.1017/s2045796013000450|pmid=23962668|issn=2045-7960}}</ref><ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Crane|first=Cory A.|last2=Hawes|first2=Samuel W.|last3=Weinberger|first3=Andrea H.|date=2013-07-22|title=Intimate Partner Violence Victimization and Cigarette Smoking|journal=Trauma, Violence, & Abuse|language=en|volume=14|issue=4|pages=305–315|doi=10.1177/1524838013495962|pmid=23878146|pmc=3784627}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Crane|first=Cory A.|last2=Godleski|first2=Stephanie A.|last3=Przybyla|first3=Sarahmona M.|last4=Schlauch|first4=Robert C.|last5=Testa|first5=Maria|date=2015-05-24|title=The Proximal Effects of Acute Alcohol Consumption on Male-to-Female Aggression|journal=Trauma, Violence, & Abuse|language=en|volume=17|issue=5|pages=520–531|doi=10.1177/1524838015584374|pmid=26009568|pmc=4798910}}</ref> Specifically, individuals with depression, generalized anxiety (GAD), or panic disorder are potentially at risk for physical violence towards a partner; findings are consistent for both men and women regarding the connection between psychiatric diagnoses and perpetuation of relationship violence.<ref name=":8" /> Additionally, propensity to engage in specific behaviors such as gambling or endorsement of violent pornography have also been associated with increased risk for relationship violence occurrence.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":7" /> Individual factors have also been suggested to be associated with relationship violence including anger, aggressiveness, and adverse emotional internalization.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Birkley|first=Erica L.|last2=Eckhardt|first2=Christopher I.|title=Anger, hostility, internalizing negative emotions, and intimate partner violence perpetration: A meta-analytic review|url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S027273581500015X|journal=Clinical Psychology Review|volume=37|pages=40–56|doi=10.1016/j.cpr.2015.01.002|pmid=25752947|pmc=4385442|year=2015}}</ref> Contrarily, exposure to relationship violence is also linked to the later development of mental health symptoms or diagnoses.<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Wolfe|first=David A.|last2=Crooks|first2=Claire V.|last3=Lee|first3=Vivien|last4=McIntyre-Smith|first4=Alexandra|last5=Jaffe|first5=Peter G.|date=2003-09-01|title=The Effects of Children's Exposure to Domestic Violence: A Meta-Analysis and Critique|journal=Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review|language=en|volume=6|issue=3|pages=171–187|doi=10.1023/a:1024910416164|issn=1096-4037}}</ref> |
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=== Violence in pop culture and media === |
=== Violence in pop culture and media === |
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The prevalence of legitimization of violence may be facilitated by its presence in various media.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Hald|first=Gert Martin|last2=Malamuth|first2=Neil M.|last3=Yuen|first3=Carlin|date=2010-01-01|title=Pornography and attitudes supporting violence against women: revisiting the relationship in nonexperimental studies |
The prevalence of legitimization of violence may be facilitated by its presence in various media.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Hald|first=Gert Martin|last2=Malamuth|first2=Neil M.|last3=Yuen|first3=Carlin|date=2010-01-01|title=Pornography and attitudes supporting violence against women: revisiting the relationship in nonexperimental studies|journal=Aggressive Behavior|language=en|volume=36|issue=1|pages=14–20|doi=10.1002/ab.20328|pmid=19862768|issn=1098-2337}}</ref> There is evidence to suggest that sex-related crimes account for nearly 10% of all dialogue on television related to sex, most of which is found on fictional programs.<ref name=":6" /> Additionally, research has also found a positive relationship between pornography consumption and attitudes supporting violence against women, especially when the pornography in question is violent in nature.<ref name=":7" /> However, consideration of individual differences is necessary in evaluating exposure to violent media and overall outcomes.<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Hoffner|first=Cynthia A.|last2=Levine|first2=Kenneth J.|date=2005-05-01|title=Enjoyment of Mediated Fright and Violence: A Meta-Analysis|journal=Media Psychology|volume=7|issue=2|pages=207–237|doi=10.1207/s1532785xmep0702_5|issn=1521-3269}}</ref> Factors which influence media content exposure and subsequent outcomes include gender and personality traits.<ref name=":14" /> Individuals who are male, hostile, impulsive, and are low on empathy are more likely to be susceptible to violent media exposure.<ref name=":14" /> |
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=== Public justification of violence === |
=== Public justification of violence === |
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== Trauma responses and cultural violence == |
== Trauma responses and cultural violence == |
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Early childhood trauma, specifically exposure to abuse or violence, is linked to mental health disorder development.<ref name=":3" /> Witnessing domestic violence during childhood places individuals at a greater risk for developing psychological disorders such as depression.<ref name=":3" /> General functioning may be impacted in behavioral or emotional domains as a result of exposure to domestic violence as a child.<ref name=":13" /> Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a widely supported potential resultant diagnosis of childhood trauma.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=Alisic|first=Eva|last2=Zalta|first2=Alyson K.|last3=Wesel|first3=Floryt van|last4=Larsen|first4=Sadie E.|last5=Hafstad|first5=Gertrud S.|last6=Hassanpour|first6=Katayun|last7=Smid|first7=Geert E.|date=2014-05-01|title=Rates of post-traumatic stress disorder in trauma-exposed children and adolescents: meta-analysis|url=http://bjp.rcpsych.org/content/204/5/335|journal=The British Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=204|issue=5|pages=335–340|doi=10.1192/bjp.bp.113.131227|issn=0007-1250|pmid=24785767}}</ref> More specifically, interpersonal trauma places children and adolescents at an increased risk for developing PTSD, with girls being the most susceptible.<ref name=":10" /> Furthermore, exposure to bullying has also been shown to induce symptoms of PTSD or be connected to a PTSD diagnosis.<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Nielsen|first=Morten Birkeland|last2=Tangen|first2=Tone|last3=Idsoe|first3=Thormod|last4=Matthiesen|first4=Stig Berge|last5=Magerøy|first5=Nils|title=Post-traumatic stress disorder as a consequence of bullying at work and at school. A literature review and meta-analysis|url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1359178915000026|journal=Aggression and Violent Behavior|volume=21|pages=17–24|doi=10.1016/j.avb.2015.01.001}}</ref> Bullying and trauma responses have been observed in both child and adult populations as well as across various environments including academic or professional settings.<ref name=":11" /> |
Early childhood trauma, specifically exposure to abuse or violence, is linked to mental health disorder development.<ref name=":3" /> Witnessing domestic violence during childhood places individuals at a greater risk for developing psychological disorders such as depression.<ref name=":3" /> General functioning may be impacted in behavioral or emotional domains as a result of exposure to domestic violence as a child.<ref name=":13" /> Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a widely supported potential resultant diagnosis of childhood trauma.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=Alisic|first=Eva|last2=Zalta|first2=Alyson K.|last3=Wesel|first3=Floryt van|last4=Larsen|first4=Sadie E.|last5=Hafstad|first5=Gertrud S.|last6=Hassanpour|first6=Katayun|last7=Smid|first7=Geert E.|date=2014-05-01|title=Rates of post-traumatic stress disorder in trauma-exposed children and adolescents: meta-analysis|url=http://bjp.rcpsych.org/content/204/5/335|journal=The British Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=204|issue=5|pages=335–340|doi=10.1192/bjp.bp.113.131227|issn=0007-1250|pmid=24785767}}</ref> More specifically, interpersonal trauma places children and adolescents at an increased risk for developing PTSD, with girls being the most susceptible.<ref name=":10" /> Furthermore, exposure to bullying has also been shown to induce symptoms of PTSD or be connected to a PTSD diagnosis.<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Nielsen|first=Morten Birkeland|last2=Tangen|first2=Tone|last3=Idsoe|first3=Thormod|last4=Matthiesen|first4=Stig Berge|last5=Magerøy|first5=Nils|title=Post-traumatic stress disorder as a consequence of bullying at work and at school. A literature review and meta-analysis|url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1359178915000026|journal=Aggression and Violent Behavior|volume=21|pages=17–24|doi=10.1016/j.avb.2015.01.001|year=2015}}</ref> Bullying and trauma responses have been observed in both child and adult populations as well as across various environments including academic or professional settings.<ref name=":11" /> |
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For individuals who have experienced rape or sexual violence, interventions are implemented to address symptoms of trauma.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Regehr|first=Cheryl|last2=Alaggia|first2=Ramona|last3=Dennis|first3=Jane|last4=Pitts|first4=Annabel|last5=Saini|first5=Michael|date=2013-02-05|title=Interventions to Reduce Distress in Adult Victims of Rape and Sexual Violence |
For individuals who have experienced rape or sexual violence, interventions are implemented to address symptoms of trauma.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Regehr|first=Cheryl|last2=Alaggia|first2=Ramona|last3=Dennis|first3=Jane|last4=Pitts|first4=Annabel|last5=Saini|first5=Michael|date=2013-02-05|title=Interventions to Reduce Distress in Adult Victims of Rape and Sexual Violence|journal=Research on Social Work Practice|language=en|volume=23|issue=3|pages=257–265|doi=10.1177/1049731512474103}}</ref> Various types of therapeutic interventions, including cognitive-processing therapy, prolonged exposure therapy, and eye movement desensitization, have been utilized for trauma responses.<ref name=":12" /> |
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== References == |
== References == |
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Revision as of 07:14, 9 December 2018
The culture of violence theory addresses the pervasiveness of specific violent patterns within in a societal dimension.[1] The concept of violence being ingrained in Western society and culture has been around for at least the past century.[1] Developed from structural violence, as research progressed the notion that a culture can sanction violent acts developed into what we know as culture of violence theory today.[1] Two prominent examples of culture legitimizing violence can be seen in rape myths and victim blaming.[2] Rape myths lead to misconstrued notions of blame; it is common for the responsibility associated with the rape to be placed on the victim rather than the offender.[2]
Furthermore, the culture of violence theory potentially accounts for inter-generational theories of violence and domestic violence.[3] Childhood exposure to violence in the household may later lead to similar patterns in marital relations.[3] Similarly, early experience with domestic violence is likely to increase an individual's potential for development of clinical symptoms.[4] Additionally, presence of a preexisting mental disorder may heighten the chances of becoming involved in an abusive relationship.[5]
There are many factors which contribute to the persistence of violence among individuals and on a societal level; gender is one relevant factor to understanding the culture of violence theory.[6] In the United States, a majority of reported rapes involve female victims.[2] However, there is a growing body of evidence to support the notion that women can perpetuate relational cycles of violence.[6] While a culture of violence has an impact on people as a whole, for individuals who have experienced trauma in their lives the impact can be much larger.[4][6][7]
Development of the theory
As mentioned previously the culture of violence theory addresses the pervasiveness of specific violent patterns within in a societal dimension.[1] Specifically, culture of violence theory explains how cultures and societies can sanction violent acts.[1] While related to structural violence, cultural violence theory is different by explaining why direct acts of violence or violence built into systems of society exists and how they are legitimized.[1] Research suggests that cultures can encourage and permit violence to exist as a response to various environmental obstacles, such as widespread resource impoverishment.[8] This can be seen within various aspects of culture, such as film, television, music, language, art, and propaganda.[1][8][9][10]
Relation to cultural values in the United States
Rape myths
Rape myths refer to the inaccurate views and stereotypes of forced sexual acts, and the victims and perpetuators of them.[9] These notions are prevalent among the general population and often suggest that the victims of non-consensual sexual acts have bad reputations, are promiscuous, dress provocatively, or are fabricating assault when they regret the consensual acts after the fact.[9] These views are often legitimized by the status quo of men dominating women across domains such as family, education, work, and many others.[9] Rape myth acceptance can lead to poor assault/rape prevention measures, decrease in reporting of assaults/rapes, increases of assaults/rapes, and re-victimization.[9]
Violence in relationships
Violence in relationships, commonly referred to as intimate partner violence (IPV), is impacted by various factors including the presence of mental illness or use of substances.[11][12][13] Specifically, individuals with depression, generalized anxiety (GAD), or panic disorder are potentially at risk for physical violence towards a partner; findings are consistent for both men and women regarding the connection between psychiatric diagnoses and perpetuation of relationship violence.[11] Additionally, propensity to engage in specific behaviors such as gambling or endorsement of violent pornography have also been associated with increased risk for relationship violence occurrence.[12][14] Individual factors have also been suggested to be associated with relationship violence including anger, aggressiveness, and adverse emotional internalization.[15] Contrarily, exposure to relationship violence is also linked to the later development of mental health symptoms or diagnoses.[16]
Violence in pop culture and media
The prevalence of legitimization of violence may be facilitated by its presence in various media.[9][14] There is evidence to suggest that sex-related crimes account for nearly 10% of all dialogue on television related to sex, most of which is found on fictional programs.[9] Additionally, research has also found a positive relationship between pornography consumption and attitudes supporting violence against women, especially when the pornography in question is violent in nature.[14] However, consideration of individual differences is necessary in evaluating exposure to violent media and overall outcomes.[17] Factors which influence media content exposure and subsequent outcomes include gender and personality traits.[17] Individuals who are male, hostile, impulsive, and are low on empathy are more likely to be susceptible to violent media exposure.[17]
Public justification of violence
Public justification of violence arise when those not necessarily directly involved in the violent act will not react negatively to the violence because they believe it is warranted.[9] Examples of public justification of violence are most evident in rape myths and victim blaming, as discussed above.[1][2][9] However, the common belief regarding legitimate violence tends to place responsibility on victims or potential victims of violence.[1][2][9] Another example that is not as often noted, is the pervasive notion of the "chosen one," within some extremist religious language and various nationalism propaganda that will function as a means to perpetuate the undermining of the other and allowance of violence against the other.[1]
Trauma responses and cultural violence
Early childhood trauma, specifically exposure to abuse or violence, is linked to mental health disorder development.[4] Witnessing domestic violence during childhood places individuals at a greater risk for developing psychological disorders such as depression.[4] General functioning may be impacted in behavioral or emotional domains as a result of exposure to domestic violence as a child.[16] Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a widely supported potential resultant diagnosis of childhood trauma.[18] More specifically, interpersonal trauma places children and adolescents at an increased risk for developing PTSD, with girls being the most susceptible.[18] Furthermore, exposure to bullying has also been shown to induce symptoms of PTSD or be connected to a PTSD diagnosis.[19] Bullying and trauma responses have been observed in both child and adult populations as well as across various environments including academic or professional settings.[19]
For individuals who have experienced rape or sexual violence, interventions are implemented to address symptoms of trauma.[20] Various types of therapeutic interventions, including cognitive-processing therapy, prolonged exposure therapy, and eye movement desensitization, have been utilized for trauma responses.[20]
References
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Galtung, Johan (2016-07-01). "Cultural Violence". Journal of Peace Research. 27 (3): 291–305. doi:10.1177/0022343390027003005.
- ^ a b c d e Suarez, Eliana; Gadalla, Tahany M. (2010-01-11). "Stop Blaming the Victim: A Meta-Analysis on Rape Myths". Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 25 (11): 2010–2035. doi:10.1177/0886260509354503. PMID 20065313.
- ^ a b Stith, Sandra M.; Rosen, Karen H.; Middleton, Kimberly A.; Busch, Amy L.; Lundeberg, Kirsten; Carlton, Russell P. (2000-08-01). "The Intergenerational Transmission of Spouse Abuse: A Meta-Analysis". Journal of Marriage and Family. 62 (3): 640–654. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2000.00640.x. ISSN 1741-3737.
- ^ a b c d Mandelli, L.; Petrelli, C.; Serretti, A. (September 2015). "The role of specific early trauma in adult depression: A meta-analysis of published literature. Childhood trauma and adult depression". European Psychiatry. 30 (6): 665–680. doi:10.1016/j.eurpsy.2015.04.007. PMID 26078093.
- ^ Trevillion, Kylee; Oram, Siân; Feder, Gene; Howard, Louise M. (2012-12-26). "Experiences of Domestic Violence and Mental Disorders: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis". PLOS ONE. 7 (12): e51740. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0051740. ISSN 1932-6203. PMID 23300562.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - ^ a b c Swan, Suzanne C.; Snow, David L. (2016-06-30). "The Development of a Theory of Women's Use of Violence in Intimate Relationships". Violence Against Women. 12 (11): 1026–1045. doi:10.1177/1077801206293330. PMID 17043365.
- ^ Ungar, Michael (2013-05-03). "Resilience, Trauma, Context, and Culture". Trauma, Violence, & Abuse. 14 (3): 255–266. doi:10.1177/1524838013487805. PMID 23645297.
- ^ a b Brown, Ryan P.; Osterman, Lindsey L. (2012-07-20). "Culture of Honor, Violence, and Homicide". The Oxford Handbook of Evolutionary Perspectives on Violence, Homicide, and War. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199738403.013.0013.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Ph.D, LeeAnn Kahlor; Ph.D, Matthew S. Eastin (2011-05-25). "Television's Role in the Culture of Violence Toward Women: A Study of Television Viewing and the Cultivation of Rape Myth Acceptance in the United States". Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media. 55 (2): 215–231. doi:10.1080/08838151.2011.566085. ISSN 0883-8151.
- ^ Ferguson, Christopher J.; Beresin, Eugene (2017). "Social science's curious war with pop culture and how it was lost: The media violence debate and the risks it holds for social science". Preventive Medicine. 99: 69–76. doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2017.02.009. PMID 28212816.
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