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A prognostic chart is a map displaying the likely weather forecast for a future time. Such charts generated by atmospheric models as output from numerical weather prediction and contain a variety of information such as temperature, wind, precipitation and weather fronts. They can also indicate derived atmospheric fields such as vorticity, stability indices,^{[clarification needed]} or frontogenesis. Forecast errors need to be taken into account and can be determined either via absolute error, or by considering persistence and absolute error combined.^{[clarification needed]}

Definition

The forecast map showing the state of the atmosphere at a future time is called a prognostic chart. Prognostic charts generated by computer models are sometimes referred to as machine-made forecasts.^[1]

Variety

Surface weather prognostic charts for mariners indicate the positions of high and low pressure areas, as well as frontal zones, up to five days into the future. Surface wind direction and speed is also forecast on this type of chart. Wave prognostic charts show the expected sea state at some future time.^[2] Low-level prognostic charts used by aviators show the forecast between the Earth's surface and 24,000 feet (7,300 m) above sea level over the next two days. They show areas where visual flight rules are in effect, instrument flight rules are in effect, the height of the freezing level, the location of weather features, and areas of moderate to severe turbulence.^[3] Prognostic charts can be made of isentropic surfaces (along a certain potential temperature surface determined in kelvins) in regards to moisture advection, mean temperatures at the surface, mean sea level pressures, and precipitation either for a single day or multiple days.^[4] For purposes of severe weather, prognostic charts can be issued to depict current weather watches, convective outlooks for thunderstorms multiple days into the future, and fire weather outlooks.^[5]

Manual

Manual prognostic charts depict tropical cyclones, turbulence, weather fronts, rain and snow areas, precipitation type and coverage indicators, as well as centers of high and low pressure.^[6] Within the United States, these type of maps are generated by the Hydrometeorological Prediction Center,^[7] the Storm Prediction Center,^[5] the Ocean Prediction Center,^[8] and the National Hurricane Center. The Aviation Weather Center re-sends these maps, and also generates specialized maps for aviation.^[9]

Automated

Atmospheric models are computer programs that produce meteorological information, including prognostic charts, for future times at given locations and altitudes.^[10] Within any modern model is a set of equations, known as the primitive equations, used to predict the future state of the atmosphere.^[11] These equations—along with the ideal gas law—are used to evolve the density, pressure, and potential temperature scalar fields and the velocity vector field of the atmosphere through time. Additional transport equations for pollutants and other aerosols are included in some primitive-equation mesoscale models as well.^[12] These equations are initialized from the analysis data and rates of change are determined. These rates of change predict the state of the atmosphere a short time into the future; the time increment for this prediction is called a time step. This time stepping is repeated until the solution reaches the desired forecast time.^[13] Time steps for global models are on the order of tens of minutes,^[14] while time steps for regional models are between one and four minutes.^[15] The global models are run outwards to varying times into the future. The UKMET Unified Model is run six days into the future,^[16] the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts model is run out to 10 days into the future,^[17] while the Global Forecast System model run by the Environmental Modeling Center is run 16 days into the future.^[18]

Verification

Around 1950, a good surface prognostic chart was considered to be one whose isobars were in the correct location.^[19] By 1957, it was proposed when isobars or height lines at the 500 hectopascals (15 inHg) pressure level in the atmosphere were being verified, that the degree of persistence should be considered so as to avoid getting bad forecasts for slow moving systems too much credit.^[20]

References

^ Ahrens, C. Donald (2008). Essentials of meteorology: an invitation to the atmosphere. Cengage Learning. p. 244. ISBN 978-0-495-11558-8.
^ Kotsch, William J. (1983). Weather For th Mariner. Naval Institute Press. pp. 236–239. ISBN 978-0-87021-756-2.
^ United States Naval Air Training Command (April 2003). Aviation Weather Student Guide (PDF). Corpus Christi, Texas Naval Air Station. pp. 2–5, 2–6. Retrieved 2011-02-26.
^ United States Department of Agriculture (1941). Climate and Man: Part Two. The Minerva Group, Inc. pp. 647–651. ISBN 978-1-4102-1539-0.
^ ^a ^b Storm Prediction Center (2011). "Forecast Products". National Centers for Environmental Prediction. Retrieved 2011-02-27.
^ Federal Aviation Administration (2007). Gliding Flyer Handbook. Skyhorse Publishing, Inc. pp. 9–30, 9–31. ISBN 978-1-60239-061-4.
^ Hydrometeorological Prediction Center (2011). "Short Range Forecasts". National Centers for Environmental Prediction. Retrieved 2011-02-26.
^ Ocean Prediction Center (2011), Atlantic Offshore, National Centers for Environmental Prediction
^ Aviation Weather Center (2011). "Analysis and forecast surface conditions (prog charts)". National Centers for Environmental Prediction. Retrieved 2011-02-26.
^ Ahrens, C. Donald (2008). Essentials of meteorology: an invitation to the atmosphere. Cengage Learning. p. 244. ISBN 978-0-495-11558-8.
^ Pielke, Roger A. (2002). Mesoscale Meteorological Modeling. Academic Press. pp. 48–49. ISBN 0-12-554766-8.
^ Pielke, Roger A. (2002). Mesoscale Meteorological Modeling. Academic Press. pp. 18–19. ISBN 0-12-554766-8.
^ Pielke, Roger A. (2002). Mesoscale Meteorological Modeling. Academic Press. pp. 285–287. ISBN 0-12-554766-8.
^ Sunderam, V. S.; van Albada, G. Dick; Peter, M. A.; Sloot, J. J. Dongarra (2005). Computational Science – ICCS 2005: 5th International Conference, Atlanta, GA, USA, May 22–25, 2005, Proceedings, Part 1. Springer. p. 132. ISBN 978-3-540-26032-5.
^ Zwieflhofer, Walter; Kreitz, Norbert; European Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasts (2001). Developments in teracomputing: proceedings of the ninth ECMWF Workshop on the Use of High Performance Computing in Meteorology. World Scientific. p. 276. ISBN 978-981-02-4761-4.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Chan, Johnny C. L.; Jeffrey D. Kepert (2010). Global Perspectives on Tropical Cyclones: From Science to Mitigation. World Scientific. pp. 295–296. ISBN 978-981-4293-47-1. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |lastauthoramp= ignored (|name-list-style= suggested) (help)
^ Holton, James R. (2004). An introduction to dynamic meteorology, Volume 1. Academic Press. p. 480. ISBN 978-0-12-354015-7.
^ Brown, Molly E. (2008). Famine early warning systems and remote sensing data. Springer. p. 121. ISBN 978-3-540-75367-4.
^ Eugenia Kalnay (2003). Atmospheric Modeling, Data Assimilation and Predictability (PDF). Cambridge University Press. p. 7. ISBN 0-521-79179-0. Retrieved 2011-02-27.
^ Sverre Petterssen (1957). "A Note on Verification of Prognostic Charts". Tellus IX: 314. doi:10.1111/j.2153-3490.1957.tb01887.x.

[1] Ahrens, C. Donald (2008). Essentials of meteorology: an invitation to the atmosphere. Cengage Learning. p. 244. ISBN 978-0-495-11558-8.

[2] Kotsch, William J. (1983). Weather For th Mariner. Naval Institute Press. pp. 236–239. ISBN 978-0-87021-756-2.

[3] United States Naval Air Training Command (April 2003). Aviation Weather Student Guide (PDF). Corpus Christi, Texas Naval Air Station. pp. 2–5, 2–6. Retrieved 2011-02-26.

[4] United States Department of Agriculture (1941). Climate and Man: Part Two. The Minerva Group, Inc. pp. 647–651. ISBN 978-1-4102-1539-0.

[SPC-5] Storm Prediction Center (2011). "Forecast Products". National Centers for Environmental Prediction. Retrieved 2011-02-27.

[6] Federal Aviation Administration (2007). Gliding Flyer Handbook. Skyhorse Publishing, Inc. pp. 9–30, 9–31. ISBN 978-1-60239-061-4.

[7] Hydrometeorological Prediction Center (2011). "Short Range Forecasts". National Centers for Environmental Prediction. Retrieved 2011-02-26.

[8] Ocean Prediction Center (2011), Atlantic Offshore, National Centers for Environmental Prediction

[9] Aviation Weather Center (2011). "Analysis and forecast surface conditions (prog charts)". National Centers for Environmental Prediction. Retrieved 2011-02-26.

[10] Ahrens, C. Donald (2008). Essentials of meteorology: an invitation to the atmosphere. Cengage Learning. p. 244. ISBN 978-0-495-11558-8.

[11] Pielke, Roger A. (2002). Mesoscale Meteorological Modeling. Academic Press. pp. 48–49. ISBN 0-12-554766-8.

[12] Pielke, Roger A. (2002). Mesoscale Meteorological Modeling. Academic Press. pp. 18–19. ISBN 0-12-554766-8.

[13] Pielke, Roger A. (2002). Mesoscale Meteorological Modeling. Academic Press. pp. 285–287. ISBN 0-12-554766-8.

[14] Sunderam, V. S.; van Albada, G. Dick; Peter, M. A.; Sloot, J. J. Dongarra (2005). Computational Science – ICCS 2005: 5th International Conference, Atlanta, GA, USA, May 22–25, 2005, Proceedings, Part 1. Springer. p. 132. ISBN 978-3-540-26032-5.

[15] Zwieflhofer, Walter; Kreitz, Norbert; European Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasts (2001). Developments in teracomputing: proceedings of the ninth ECMWF Workshop on the Use of High Performance Computing in Meteorology. World Scientific. p. 276. ISBN 978-981-02-4761-4.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[models-16] Chan, Johnny C. L.; Jeffrey D. Kepert (2010). Global Perspectives on Tropical Cyclones: From Science to Mitigation. World Scientific. pp. 295–296. ISBN 978-981-4293-47-1. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |lastauthoramp= ignored (|name-list-style= suggested) (help)

[17] Holton, James R. (2004). An introduction to dynamic meteorology, Volume 1. Academic Press. p. 480. ISBN 978-0-12-354015-7.

[18] Brown, Molly E. (2008). Famine early warning systems and remote sensing data. Springer. p. 121. ISBN 978-3-540-75367-4.

[19] Eugenia Kalnay (2003). Atmospheric Modeling, Data Assimilation and Predictability (PDF). Cambridge University Press. p. 7. ISBN 0-521-79179-0. Retrieved 2011-02-27.

[20] Sverre Petterssen (1957). "A Note on Verification of Prognostic Charts". Tellus IX: 314. doi:10.1111/j.2153-3490.1957.tb01887.x.

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@@ Line 2: / Line 2: @@
 ==Definition==
-The forecast map showing the state of the atmosphere at a future time is called a prognostic chart.  Prognostic charts generated by computer models are sometimes referred to as machine-made forecasts.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Yn29IFukbgC&pg=PA244&lpg=PA244&dq=prognostic+chart+weather+model+book&source=bl&ots=iBxnwg59qy&sig=iARrStGLcqA4LRQhMclyiqYGkkY&hl=en&ei=bYJqTbuXAsKBlAec4Kz_AQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=prognostic%20chart%20weather%20model%20book&f=false|page=244|author=Ahrens, C. Donald|title=Essentials of meteorology: an invitation to the atmosphere|year=2008|publisher=Cengage Learning|ISBN=978-0-495-11558-8|accessdate=2011-02-27}}</ref>
+The forecast map showing the state of the atmosphere at a future time is called a prognostic chart.  Prognostic charts generated by computer models are sometimes referred to as machine-made forecasts.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Yn29IFukbgC&pg=PA244|page=244|author=Ahrens, C. Donald|title=Essentials of meteorology: an invitation to the atmosphere|year=2008|publisher=Cengage Learning|ISBN=978-0-495-11558-8}}</ref>
 ==Variety==
-Surface weather prognostic charts for [[sailor|mariners]] indicate the positions of high and low pressure areas, as well as frontal zones, up to five days into the future.  Surface wind direction and speed is also forecast on this type of chart.  Wave prognostic charts show the expected sea state at some future time.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rlwuk6W-Uz4C&pg=PA236&lpg=PA236&dq=types+of+prognostic+charts+weather+book&source=bl&ots=l_Q4vE_d_0&sig=79y2efeV7p8EspW74M4nnYExNm0&hl=en&ei=XY9pTbyGMoqRgQeri4nMCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBYQ6AEwADgK#v=onepage&q=types%20of%20prognostic%20charts%20weather%20book&f=false|title=Weather For th Mariner|author=Kotsch, William J.|pages=236–239|publisher=Naval Institute Press|year=1983|accessdate=2011-02-26|ISBN=978-0-87021-756-2}}</ref>  Low-level prognostic charts used by [[aviator]]s show the forecast between the Earth's surface and {{convert|24000|ft|m}} above [[sea level]] over the next two days.  They show areas where [[visual flight rules]] are in effect, [[instrument flight rules]] are in effect, the height of the freezing level, the location of weather features, and areas of moderate to severe turbulence.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.cnatra.navy.mil/pubs/folder5/T34C/P-304.pdf|title=Aviation Weather Student Guide|author=United States Naval Air Training Command|publisher=[[Corpus Christi, Texas]] Naval Air Station|pages=2-5,2-6|date=April 2003|accessdate=2011-02-26}}</ref>  Prognostic charts can be made of isentropic surfaces (along a certain [[potential temperature]] surface determined in [[kelvin]]s) in regards to [[moisture advection]], mean temperatures at the surface, mean sea level pressures, and precipitation either for a single day or multiple days.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jd5pc6VfWxwC&pg=PA646&dq=prognostic+chart+verification+book&hl=en&ei=S_RqTYTzNcH7lweS74n_AQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CDwQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=prognostic%20chart%20verification%20book&f=false|pages=647–651|title=Climate and Man: Part Two|author=[[United States Department of Agriculture]]|year=1941|ISBN=978-1-4102-1539-0|accessdate=2011-02-27|publisher=The Minerva Group, Inc.}}</ref>  For purposes of [[severe weather]], prognostic charts can be issued to depict current [[Weather watch#Weather watches|weather watches]], convective outlooks for [[thunderstorm]]s multiple days into the future, and [[Wildfire modeling|fire weather]] outlooks.<ref name="SPC"/>
+Surface weather prognostic charts for [[sailor|mariners]] indicate the positions of high and low pressure areas, as well as frontal zones, up to five days into the future.  Surface wind direction and speed is also forecast on this type of chart.  Wave prognostic charts show the expected sea state at some future time.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rlwuk6W-Uz4C&pg=PA236|title=Weather For th Mariner|author=Kotsch, William J.|pages=236–239|publisher=Naval Institute Press|year=1983|ISBN=978-0-87021-756-2}}</ref>  Low-level prognostic charts used by [[aviator]]s show the forecast between the Earth's surface and {{convert|24000|ft|m}} above [[sea level]] over the next two days.  They show areas where [[visual flight rules]] are in effect, [[instrument flight rules]] are in effect, the height of the freezing level, the location of weather features, and areas of moderate to severe turbulence.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.cnatra.navy.mil/pubs/folder5/T34C/P-304.pdf|title=Aviation Weather Student Guide|author=United States Naval Air Training Command|publisher=[[Corpus Christi, Texas]] Naval Air Station|pages=2-5,2-6|date=April 2003|accessdate=2011-02-26}}</ref>  Prognostic charts can be made of isentropic surfaces (along a certain [[potential temperature]] surface determined in [[kelvin]]s) in regards to [[moisture advection]], mean temperatures at the surface, mean sea level pressures, and precipitation either for a single day or multiple days.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jd5pc6VfWxwC&pg=PA646|pages=647–651|title=Climate and Man: Part Two|author=[[United States Department of Agriculture]]|year=1941|ISBN=978-1-4102-1539-0|publisher=The Minerva Group, Inc.}}</ref>  For purposes of [[severe weather]], prognostic charts can be issued to depict current [[Weather watch#Weather watches|weather watches]], convective outlooks for [[thunderstorm]]s multiple days into the future, and [[Wildfire modeling|fire weather]] outlooks.<ref name="SPC"/>
 ==Manual==
 {{See also|Weather forecasting}}
 [[File:manualfcst36hrs.gif|thumb|right|A manual prognostic chart of the weather in the United States 36&nbsp;hours into the future]]
-Manual prognostic charts depict [[tropical cyclone]]s, [[turbulence]], weather fronts, [[rain]] and [[snow]] areas, precipitation type and coverage indicators, as well as centers of [[high-pressure area|high]] and [[low-pressure area|low pressure]].<ref>{{cite book|pages=9-30, 9-31|title=Gliding Flyer Handbook|author=[[Federal Aviation Administration]]|accessdate=2011-02-26|year=2007|publisher=Skyhorse Publishing, Inc.|ISBN=|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y1CCxCYbXEMC&pg=SA9-PA31&lpg=SA9-PA31&dq=prognostic+chart+book&source=bl&ots=6X98E1qlwP&sig=twyPCz58b69U3XDOnwx5FUMk9yw&hl=en&ei=44NpTYTJM4H98Abdx4XOCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5&sqi=2&ved=0CDYQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=prognostic%20chart%20book&f=false}}</ref>  Within the United States, these type of maps are generated by the [[Hydrometeorological Prediction Center]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wpc.ncep.noaa.gov/basicwx/basicwx_wbg.php|title=Short Range Forecasts|author=[[Hydrometeorological Prediction Center]]|publisher=[[National Centers for Environmental Prediction]]|year=2011|accessdate=2011-02-26}}</ref> the [[Storm Prediction Center]],<ref name="SPC">{{cite web|url=http://www.spc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/|title=Forecast Products|author=[[Storm Prediction Center]]|publisher=[[National Centers for Environmental Prediction]]|year=2011|accessdate=2011-02-27}}</ref> the [[Ocean Prediction Center]],<ref>{{cite web|author=[[Ocean Prediction Center]]|title=Atlantic Offshore|publisher=[[National Centers for Environmental Prediction]]|year=2011}}</ref> and the [[National Hurricane Center]].  The Aviation Weather Center re-sends these maps, and also generates specialized maps for aviation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://aviationweather.gov/adds/progs/|title=Analysis and forecast surface conditions (prog charts)|author=[[Aviation Weather Center]]|publisher=[[National Centers for Environmental Prediction]]|year=2011|accessdate=2011-02-26}}</ref>
+Manual prognostic charts depict [[tropical cyclone]]s, [[turbulence]], weather fronts, [[rain]] and [[snow]] areas, precipitation type and coverage indicators, as well as centers of [[high-pressure area|high]] and [[low-pressure area|low pressure]].<ref>{{cite book|pages=9-30, 9-31|title=Gliding Flyer Handbook|author=[[Federal Aviation Administration]]|year=2007|publisher=Skyhorse Publishing, Inc.|ISBN=978-1-60239-061-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y1CCxCYbXEMC&pg=SA9-PA31}}</ref>  Within the United States, these type of maps are generated by the [[Hydrometeorological Prediction Center]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wpc.ncep.noaa.gov/basicwx/basicwx_wbg.php|title=Short Range Forecasts|author=[[Hydrometeorological Prediction Center]]|publisher=[[National Centers for Environmental Prediction]]|year=2011|accessdate=2011-02-26}}</ref> the [[Storm Prediction Center]],<ref name="SPC">{{cite web|url=http://www.spc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/|title=Forecast Products|author=[[Storm Prediction Center]]|publisher=[[National Centers for Environmental Prediction]]|year=2011|accessdate=2011-02-27}}</ref> the [[Ocean Prediction Center]],<ref>{{citation|author=[[Ocean Prediction Center]]|title=Atlantic Offshore|publisher=[[National Centers for Environmental Prediction]]|year=2011}}</ref> and the [[National Hurricane Center]].  The Aviation Weather Center re-sends these maps, and also generates specialized maps for aviation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://aviationweather.gov/adds/progs/|title=Analysis and forecast surface conditions (prog charts)|author=[[Aviation Weather Center]]|publisher=[[National Centers for Environmental Prediction]]|year=2011|accessdate=2011-02-26}}</ref>
 ==Automated==
@@ Line 16: / Line 16: @@
 [[File:GFS 850 MB.PNG|right|thumb|An automated prognostic chart of the 96-hour forecast of 850 [[millibar|mbar]] [[geopotential height]] and [[temperature]] from the [[Global Forecast System]]|alt=A prognostic chart of the North American continent provides geopotential heights, temperatures, and wind velocities at regular intervals. The values are taken at the altitude corresponding to the 850-millibar pressure surface.]]
-Atmospheric models are computer programs that produce [[meteorological]] information, including prognostic charts, for future times at given locations and altitudes.<ref>{{cite book|author=Ahrens, C. Donald|page=244|ISBN=978-0-495-11558-8|year=2008|publisher=Cengage Learning|title=Essentials of meteorology: an invitation to the atmosphere|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Yn29IFukbgC&pg=PA244&lpg=PA244&dq=regional+weather+forecast+model+characteristics+book&source=bl&ots=iBxiwg0atz&sig=dj58_uKk0k3ef8RxnjbZb76QZ74&hl=en&ei=JyQeTfWZK8H7lweXgYXkCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=6&ved=0CDkQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q&f=false|accessdate=2011-02-11}}</ref>  Within any modern model is a set of equations, known as the [[primitive equations]], used to predict the future state of the atmosphere.<ref>{{cite book|last=Pielke|first=Roger A.|title=Mesoscale Meteorological Modeling|year=2002|publisher=[[Academic Press]]|isbn=0-12-554766-8|pages=48–49}}</ref>  These equations—along with the [[ideal gas law]]—are used to evolve the [[density]], [[pressure]], and [[potential temperature]] [[scalar field]]s and the [[velocity]] [[vector field]] of the atmosphere through time. Additional transport equations for pollutants and other [[aerosol]]s are included in some primitive-equation mesoscale models as well.<ref>{{cite book|last=Pielke|first=Roger A.|title=Mesoscale Meteorological Modeling|year=2002|publisher=[[Academic Press]]|isbn=0-12-554766-8|pages=18–19}}</ref>  These equations are initialized from the analysis data and rates of change are determined.  These rates of change predict the state of the atmosphere a short time into the future; the time increment for this prediction is called a ''time step.''  This ''time stepping'' is repeated until the solution reaches the desired forecast time.<ref>{{cite book|last=Pielke|first=Roger A.|title=Mesoscale Meteorological Modeling|year=2002|publisher=[[Academic Press]]|isbn=0-12-554766-8|pages=285–287}}</ref>  Time steps for global models are on the order of tens of minutes,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JZikIbXzipwC&pg=PA131&lpg=PA131&dq=time+step+numerical+weather+prediction&source=bl&ots=KoeMxpt3_J&sig=7DEG9Sjy6-8O9BVJtNuLnWOBrBo&hl=en&ei=9xshTem6C8GB8gaGzq3fDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7&sqi=2&ved=0CEIQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=time%20step%20numerical%20weather%20prediction&f=false|page=132|author1=Sunderam, V. S. |author2=van Albada, G. Dick |author3=Peter, M. A. |author4=Sloot, J. J. Dongarra |title=Computational Science – ICCS 2005: 5th International Conference, Atlanta, GA, USA, May 22–25, 2005, Proceedings, Part 1|year=2005|accessdate=2011-01-02|publisher=Springer|ISBN=978-3-540-26032-5}}</ref> while time steps for regional models are between one and four minutes.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UV6PnF2z5_wC&pg=PA276&dq=time+step+WRF+weather&hl=en&ei=iCAhTejVDMOBlAfz6-WcDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=time%20step%20WRF%20weather&f=false|page=276|title=Developments in teracomputing: proceedings of the ninth ECMWF Workshop on the Use of High Performance Computing in Meteorology|author=Zwieflhofer, Walter; Kreitz, Norbert; European Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasts|year=2001|accessdate=2011-01-02|publisher=World Scientific|ISBN=978-981-02-4761-4}}</ref>  The global models are run outwards to varying times into the future.  The [[UKMET]] [[Unified Model]] is run six days into the future,<ref name="models">{{cite book|pages=295–296|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6gFiunmKWWAC&pg=PA297&dq=hours+time+used+to+run+ECMWF+model&hl=en&ei=jOZmTZ2QJcOBgAerqODLCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CDwQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=hours%20time%20used%20to%20run%20ECMWF%20model&f=false|title=Global Perspectives on Tropical Cyclones: From Science to Mitigation|author1=Chan, Johnny C. L.  |author2=Jeffrey D. Kepert |lastauthoramp=yes |year=2010|publisher=World Scientific|ISBN=978-981-4293-47-1|accessdate=2011-02-24}}</ref> the [[European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts]] model is run out to 10&nbsp;days into the future,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fhW5oDv3EPsC&pg=PA474&dq=time+used+to+run+ECMWF+model&hl=en&ei=_ORmTY-tDoKClAfWmbD_AQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=6&sqi=2&ved=0CEAQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q&f=false|page=480|author=Holton, James R.|title=An introduction to dynamic meteorology, Volume 1|year=2004|publisher=Academic Press|accessdate=2011-02-24|ISBN=978-0-12-354015-7}}</ref> while the [[Global Forecast System]] model run by the [[Environmental Modeling Center]] is run 16&nbsp;days into the future.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mTZvR3R6YdkC&pg=PA121&dq=how+long+does+it+take+to+run+the+GFS+global+weather+model+book&hl=en&ei=QOhmTd-wLYOBlAeG2amCAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&sqi=2&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false|page=121|title=Famine early warning systems and remote sensing data|author=Brown, Molly E.|publisher=Springer|year=2008|accessdate=2011-02-24|ISBN=978-3-540-75367-4}}</ref>
+Atmospheric models are computer programs that produce [[meteorological]] information, including prognostic charts, for future times at given locations and altitudes.<ref>{{cite book|author=Ahrens, C. Donald|page=244|ISBN=978-0-495-11558-8|year=2008|publisher=Cengage Learning|title=Essentials of meteorology: an invitation to the atmosphere|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Yn29IFukbgC&pg=PA244}}</ref>  Within any modern model is a set of equations, known as the [[primitive equations]], used to predict the future state of the atmosphere.<ref>{{cite book|last=Pielke|first=Roger A.|title=Mesoscale Meteorological Modeling|year=2002|publisher=[[Academic Press]]|isbn=0-12-554766-8|pages=48–49}}</ref>  These equations—along with the [[ideal gas law]]—are used to evolve the [[density]], [[pressure]], and [[potential temperature]] [[scalar field]]s and the [[velocity]] [[vector field]] of the atmosphere through time. Additional transport equations for pollutants and other [[aerosol]]s are included in some primitive-equation mesoscale models as well.<ref>{{cite book|last=Pielke|first=Roger A.|title=Mesoscale Meteorological Modeling|year=2002|publisher=[[Academic Press]]|isbn=0-12-554766-8|pages=18–19}}</ref>  These equations are initialized from the analysis data and rates of change are determined.  These rates of change predict the state of the atmosphere a short time into the future; the time increment for this prediction is called a ''time step.''  This ''time stepping'' is repeated until the solution reaches the desired forecast time.<ref>{{cite book|last=Pielke|first=Roger A.|title=Mesoscale Meteorological Modeling|year=2002|publisher=[[Academic Press]]|isbn=0-12-554766-8|pages=285–287}}</ref>  Time steps for global models are on the order of tens of minutes,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JZikIbXzipwC&pg=PA131|page=132|author1=Sunderam, V. S. |author2=van Albada, G. Dick |author3=Peter, M. A. |author4=Sloot, J. J. Dongarra |title=Computational Science – ICCS 2005: 5th International Conference, Atlanta, GA, USA, May 22–25, 2005, Proceedings, Part 1|year=2005|publisher=Springer|ISBN=978-3-540-26032-5}}</ref> while time steps for regional models are between one and four minutes.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UV6PnF2z5_wC&pg=PA276|page=276|title=Developments in teracomputing: proceedings of the ninth ECMWF Workshop on the Use of High Performance Computing in Meteorology|author=Zwieflhofer, Walter; Kreitz, Norbert; European Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasts|year=2001|publisher=World Scientific|ISBN=978-981-02-4761-4}}</ref>  The global models are run outwards to varying times into the future.  The [[UKMET]] [[Unified Model]] is run six days into the future,<ref name="models">{{cite book|pages=295–296|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6gFiunmKWWAC&pg=PA297|title=Global Perspectives on Tropical Cyclones: From Science to Mitigation|author1=Chan, Johnny C. L.  |author2=Jeffrey D. Kepert |lastauthoramp=yes |year=2010|publisher=World Scientific|ISBN=978-981-4293-47-1}}</ref> the [[European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts]] model is run out to 10&nbsp;days into the future,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fhW5oDv3EPsC&pg=PA474|page=480|author=Holton, James R.|title=An introduction to dynamic meteorology, Volume 1|year=2004|publisher=Academic Press|ISBN=978-0-12-354015-7}}</ref> while the [[Global Forecast System]] model run by the [[Environmental Modeling Center]] is run 16&nbsp;days into the future.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mTZvR3R6YdkC&pg=PA121|page=121|title=Famine early warning systems and remote sensing data|author=Brown, Molly E.|publisher=Springer|year=2008|ISBN=978-3-540-75367-4}}</ref>
 ==Verification==