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== Estuaries ==
== Estuaries ==


'''Freshwater inflow''': Freshwater flows into an [[estuary]] and mixes with the marine water of the [[estuary|estuarine ecosystem]]. The mixing of freshwater inflow and the [[seawater|marine water]] of the [[estuary|estuarine ecosystem]] occurs spatially and temporally from climatic influences including tidal action, seasonal variability and storms.<ref name="Hydrological Changes and Estuarine Dynamic">{{cite journal|last=Montagna|first=P.A. |author2=Palmer, T. |author3=Pollack, J.|title=Hydrological Changes and Estuarine Dynamics|journal=Springerbriefs in Environmental Science|year=2013|volume=8|page=94|doi=10.1007/978-1-4614-5833-3|url=https://www.springer.com/life+sciences/ecology/book/978-1-4614-5832-6}}</ref> Mixing is affected by the amount of estuarine system. The [[tide]]s and the volume of the receiving estuary govern the volume of seawater. Tides are defined as the periodic rise and fall of the surface of the sea along the coast that are driven by the gravitational pull of the moon and of the sun.<ref name="An Introduction to the Biology of Marine Life, Sixth Edition">{{cite book|last=Sumich|first=J.L.|title=An Introduction to the Biology of Marine Life, Sixth Edition|year=2004|publisher=Jones and Bartlett Learning|page=449|url=https://books.google.com/books/about/Introduction_to_the_Biology_of_Marine_Li.html?id=Y8vTCze3dHgC}}</ref> Although estuaries are influenced by the tides, they are often somewhat protected from storms and tidal action by buffers further offshore including [[barrier island]]s and [[peninsula]]s.<ref name="Hydrological Changes and Estuarine Dynamic"/>
'''Freshwater inflow''': Freshwater flows into an [[estuary]] and mixes with the marine water of the [[estuary|estuarine ecosystem]]. The mixing of freshwater inflow and the [[seawater|marine water]] of the [[estuary|estuarine ecosystem]] occurs spatially and temporally from climatic influences including tidal action, seasonal variability and storms.<ref name="Hydrological Changes and Estuarine Dynamic">{{cite book|last=Montagna|first=P.A. |author2=Palmer, T. |author3=Pollack, J.|title=Hydrological Changes and Estuarine Dynamics|journal=Springerbriefs in Environmental Science|year=2013|volume=8|page=94|doi=10.1007/978-1-4614-5833-3|url=https://www.springer.com/life+sciences/ecology/book/978-1-4614-5832-6|isbn=978-1-4614-5832-6 }}</ref> Mixing is affected by the amount of estuarine system. The [[tide]]s and the volume of the receiving estuary govern the volume of seawater. Tides are defined as the periodic rise and fall of the surface of the sea along the coast that are driven by the gravitational pull of the moon and of the sun.<ref name="An Introduction to the Biology of Marine Life, Sixth Edition">{{cite book|last=Sumich|first=J.L.|title=An Introduction to the Biology of Marine Life, Sixth Edition|year=2004|publisher=Jones and Bartlett Learning|page=449|url=https://books.google.com/books/about/Introduction_to_the_Biology_of_Marine_Li.html?id=Y8vTCze3dHgC|isbn=9780763733131}}</ref> Although estuaries are influenced by the tides, they are often somewhat protected from storms and tidal action by buffers further offshore including [[barrier island]]s and [[peninsula]]s.<ref name="Hydrological Changes and Estuarine Dynamic"/>


The low-salinity conditions of the [[seawater|marine water]] are created when freshwater mixes with the saltwater of the estuarine system. Average [salinity] for freshwater is around 0.5 parts per thousand (ppt) whereas average salinity of the ocean is 35 ppt.<ref name=Estuaries>{{cite web|last=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)|title=Estuaries|url=http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/kits/estuaries/estuaries01_whatis.html|work=NOAA}}</ref> The salinity will not be consistent throughout a particular estuary and will be differ from one estuary to the next but its level will range from 0.5 ppt to 35 ppt.<ref name="Estuaries"/> In estuaries, primary producers take up [[nutrients]] such as [[nitrogen]] and [[phosphorus]].<ref name="Nutrient Enrichment Studies in a Coastal Plain Estuary: Phytoplankton Growth in Large-Scale, Continuous Cultures">{{cite journal|last=D'Elia|first=C.F.|author1-link=Christopher D'Elia|author2=Sanders, J.G. |author3=Boynton, W.R. |title=Nutrient Enrichment Studies in a Coastal Plain Estuary: Phytoplankton Growth in Large-Scale, Continuous Cultures|journal=Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences|year=1986|volume=43|issue=2|pages=397–406|doi=10.1139/f86-050|url=http://www.nrcresearchpress.com/doi/abs/10.1139/f86-050#.Ufaeh1OBYXw}}</ref> Freshwater inflows carry estuaries, replenishing the stock for phytoplankton use.<ref name="Nutrient Enrichment Studies in a Coastal Plain Estuary: Phytoplankton Growth in Large-Scale, Continuous Cultures"/> [[Sediment]]s settling out and form banks, offshore peninsulas, and barrier islands that protect the estuary from strong tidal action and currents. The sediment also supports beaches and provision the inter-tidal wetlands. Organic material delivered to estuaries by freshwater inflows the primary energy source for organisms living in the estuary.<ref name="The Influence of Atchafalaya River discharge on Fourleague Bay, Louisiana (USA)">{{cite book|last=Keith R. Dyer & Robert Joseph Orth|title=''The influence of Atchafalaya River discharge on Fourleague Bay, Louisiana (USA)'' found in:Changes in Fluxes in Estuaries|year=1994|publisher=Olsen and Olsen|location=Fredensborg, Denmark|pages=151–160|url=https://books.google.com/books/about/Changes_in_Fluxes_in_Estuaries.html?id=6Dsf2f3hEUEC}}</ref> Estuarine ecosystems need freshwater inflow to maintain their productivity, or to continue to produce biomass.
The low-salinity conditions of the [[seawater|marine water]] are created when freshwater mixes with the saltwater of the estuarine system. Average [salinity] for freshwater is around 0.5 parts per thousand (ppt) whereas average salinity of the ocean is 35 ppt.<ref name=Estuaries>{{cite web|last=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)|title=Estuaries|url=http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/kits/estuaries/estuaries01_whatis.html|work=NOAA}}</ref> The salinity will not be consistent throughout a particular estuary and will be differ from one estuary to the next but its level will range from 0.5 ppt to 35 ppt.<ref name="Estuaries"/> In estuaries, primary producers take up [[nutrients]] such as [[nitrogen]] and [[phosphorus]].<ref name="Nutrient Enrichment Studies in a Coastal Plain Estuary: Phytoplankton Growth in Large-Scale, Continuous Cultures">{{cite journal|last=D'Elia|first=C.F.|author1-link=Christopher D'Elia|author2=Sanders, J.G. |author3=Boynton, W.R. |title=Nutrient Enrichment Studies in a Coastal Plain Estuary: Phytoplankton Growth in Large-Scale, Continuous Cultures|journal=Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences|year=1986|volume=43|issue=2|pages=397–406|doi=10.1139/f86-050}}</ref> Freshwater inflows carry estuaries, replenishing the stock for phytoplankton use.<ref name="Nutrient Enrichment Studies in a Coastal Plain Estuary: Phytoplankton Growth in Large-Scale, Continuous Cultures"/> [[Sediment]]s settling out and form banks, offshore peninsulas, and barrier islands that protect the estuary from strong tidal action and currents. The sediment also supports beaches and provision the inter-tidal wetlands. Organic material delivered to estuaries by freshwater inflows the primary energy source for organisms living in the estuary.<ref name="The Influence of Atchafalaya River discharge on Fourleague Bay, Louisiana (USA)">{{cite book|last=Keith R. Dyer & Robert Joseph Orth|title=''The influence of Atchafalaya River discharge on Fourleague Bay, Louisiana (USA)'' found in:Changes in Fluxes in Estuaries|year=1994|publisher=Olsen and Olsen|location=Fredensborg, Denmark|pages=151–160|url=https://books.google.com/books/about/Changes_in_Fluxes_in_Estuaries.html?id=6Dsf2f3hEUEC|isbn=9788785215222}}</ref> Estuarine ecosystems need freshwater inflow to maintain their productivity, or to continue to produce biomass.


[[Estuary|Estuarine ecosystems]] are fundamentally important and necessary to protect through the management of freshwater inflow because of the many [[ecosystem services]] they produce. An ecosystem service is something provided by nature that is of value to humans. Estuarine ecosystems are among the most productive ecosystems on the planet. Estuaries house such species as the blue crab, red fish, flounder, spotted seatrout, and many others for some point of the species’ life cycle. Marine habitats, such as those found in estuarine ecosystems, are valued at providing an estimated US14$ trillion worth of ecosystem goods and services annually, or 43% of the global total.<ref name="The Value of the World's Ecosystem Services and Natural Capital">{{cite journal |last1=Costanza |first1=R. |last2=d'Arge |first2=R. |last3=de Groot |first3=R. |last4=Farber |first4=S. |last5=Grasso |first5=M. |last6=Hannon |first6=B. |last7=Limburg |first7=K. |last8=Naeem |first8=S. |last9=O'Neill |first9=R. V. |last10=Paruelo |first10=J. |last11=Raskin |first11=R. G. |last12=Sutton |first12=P. |last13=van den Belt |first13=M. |title=The Value of the World's Ecosystem Services and Natural Capital |journal=Nature |year=1997 |volume=387 |pages=253–260 |doi=10.1038/387253a0 |url=http://www.esd.ornl.gov/benefits_conference/nature_paper.pdf |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120730185431/http://www.esd.ornl.gov/benefits_conference/nature_paper.pdf |archivedate=2012-07-30 |df= }}</ref> Some economically important estuarine habitats include tidal flats, salt marshes, sea grass beds, oyster reefs, and mangroves. This is why estuaries are important to protect and conserve.
[[Estuary|Estuarine ecosystems]] are fundamentally important and necessary to protect through the management of freshwater inflow because of the many [[ecosystem services]] they produce. An ecosystem service is something provided by nature that is of value to humans. Estuarine ecosystems are among the most productive ecosystems on the planet. Estuaries house such species as the blue crab, red fish, flounder, spotted seatrout, and many others for some point of the species’ life cycle. Marine habitats, such as those found in estuarine ecosystems, are valued at providing an estimated US14$ trillion worth of ecosystem goods and services annually, or 43% of the global total.<ref name="The Value of the World's Ecosystem Services and Natural Capital">{{cite journal |last1=Costanza |first1=R. |last2=d'Arge |first2=R. |last3=de Groot |first3=R. |last4=Farber |first4=S. |last5=Grasso |first5=M. |last6=Hannon |first6=B. |last7=Limburg |first7=K. |last8=Naeem |first8=S. |last9=O'Neill |first9=R. V. |last10=Paruelo |first10=J. |last11=Raskin |first11=R. G. |last12=Sutton |first12=P. |last13=van den Belt |first13=M. |title=The Value of the World's Ecosystem Services and Natural Capital |journal=Nature |year=1997 |volume=387 |issue=6630 |pages=253–260 |doi=10.1038/387253a0 |url=http://www.esd.ornl.gov/benefits_conference/nature_paper.pdf |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120730185431/http://www.esd.ornl.gov/benefits_conference/nature_paper.pdf |archivedate=2012-07-30 |df= }}</ref> Some economically important estuarine habitats include tidal flats, salt marshes, sea grass beds, oyster reefs, and mangroves. This is why estuaries are important to protect and conserve.


== Global change ==
== Global change ==


[[Global change]]s caused largely by [[human impact on the environment|anthropogenic influences]], or human impacts, are altering the amount of freshwater inflows to [[estuary|estuaries]].<ref name=CAMEO>{{cite web|title=Comparative Analysis of Marine Ecosystems Organization (CAMEO)|url=http://cameo.noaa.gov/pres_montagna.html|work=CAMEO}}</ref> Humans are diverting water from rivers and streams, decreasing the amount of flows making it to [[estuary|estuarine ecosystems]]. Since the 1960s dewatering, or removal of water from streams and rivers, has doubled and around 60% of the Earth’s runoff is captured.<ref name="Ecosystems and Human Well Being: Current State and Trends">{{cite journal|last=Millennium Ecosystem Assessment|title=Ecosystems and Human Well Being: Current State and Trends|journal=Island Press|year=2005|volume=1|page=47|url=http://www.millenniumassessment.org/documents/document.766.aspx.pdf}}</ref> The removal of freshwater from rivers and streams for [[human impact on the environment|anthropogenic]] use before it reaches the coast is having a negative impact on many [[estuary|estuaries]]. Half of the world’s major cities are within 50&nbsp;km of the coast, and coastal populations are 2.6 times denser than those further inland.<ref name="Coastal Fluxes in the Anthropocene">{{cite book|last=Crossland|first=C.J.|title=Coastal Fluxes in the Anthropocene|year=2005|publisher=Springer-Verlag|location=Berlin, Germany|isbn=978-3-540-27851-1|page=232|url=https://www.springer.com/earth+sciences+and+geography/atmospheric+sciences/book/978-3-540-25450-8|display-authors=etal}}</ref> Technological advances in the collection of freshwater is continually improving, further straining available freshwater resources. As the human population grows and the strain on water resources continues, the ability to effectively manage freshwater inflows into [[estuary|estuaries]] is becoming a priority worldwide.<ref name="Hydrological Changes and Estuarine Dynamic"/>
[[Global change]]s caused largely by [[human impact on the environment|anthropogenic influences]], or human impacts, are altering the amount of freshwater inflows to [[estuary|estuaries]].<ref name=CAMEO>{{cite web|title=Comparative Analysis of Marine Ecosystems Organization (CAMEO)|url=http://cameo.noaa.gov/pres_montagna.html|work=CAMEO}}</ref> Humans are diverting water from rivers and streams, decreasing the amount of flows making it to [[estuary|estuarine ecosystems]]. Since the 1960s dewatering, or removal of water from streams and rivers, has doubled and around 60% of the Earth’s runoff is captured.<ref name="Ecosystems and Human Well Being: Current State and Trends">{{cite journal|last=Millennium Ecosystem Assessment|title=Ecosystems and Human Well Being: Current State and Trends|journal=Island Press|year=2005|volume=1|page=47|url=http://www.millenniumassessment.org/documents/document.766.aspx.pdf}}</ref> The removal of freshwater from rivers and streams for [[human impact on the environment|anthropogenic]] use before it reaches the coast is having a negative impact on many [[estuary|estuaries]]. Half of the world’s major cities are within 50&nbsp;km of the coast, and coastal populations are 2.6 times denser than those further inland.<ref name="Coastal Fluxes in the Anthropocene">{{cite book|last=Crossland|first=C.J.|title=Coastal Fluxes in the Anthropocene|year=2005|publisher=Springer-Verlag|location=Berlin, Germany|isbn=978-3-540-27851-1|page=232|url=https://www.springer.com/earth+sciences+and+geography/atmospheric+sciences/book/978-3-540-25450-8|display-authors=etal|series=Global Change - the IGBP Series}}</ref> Technological advances in the collection of freshwater is continually improving, further straining available freshwater resources. As the human population grows and the strain on water resources continues, the ability to effectively manage freshwater inflows into [[estuary|estuaries]] is becoming a priority worldwide.<ref name="Hydrological Changes and Estuarine Dynamic"/>


===Dewatering===
===Dewatering===
Changes in freshwater inflow have resulted in losses of habitat, biodiversity, and productivity.<ref name="Effect of Restored Freshwater Inflow on Macrofauna and Meiofauna in Upper Rincon Bayou, Texas, USA">{{cite journal |last1=Montagna |first1=P.A. |last2=Kalke |first2=R. D. |last3=Ritter |first3=C. |title=Effect of Restored Freshwater Inflow on Macrofauna and Meiofauna in Upper Rincon Bayou, Texas, USA |journal=Estuaries |year=2002 |volume=25 |pages=1436–1447 |url=https://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/1352870?uid=14083968&uid=3739920&uid=2129&uid=2&uid=70&uid=3&uid=67&uid=35917&uid=5910584&uid=62&uid=3739256&sid=21102502304531 |doi=10.1007/bf02692237}}</ref> Studies also found changes in bioindicator species community’s biomass correlated with changing freshwater inflows, which indicates secondary production changes with altered inflows.<ref name="Implications of Colorado River Freshwater Inflow to Benthic Ecosystem Dynamics: A Modeling Study">{{cite journal |last1=Kim |first1=H. C. |last2=Montagna |first2=P. A. |title=Implications of Colorado River Freshwater Inflow to Benthic Ecosystem Dynamics: A Modeling Study |journal=[[Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science]] |year=2009 |volume=83 |pages=491–504 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0272771409002340 |doi=10.1016/j.ecss.2009.04.033}}</ref> These studies suggest the health of the estuary depends on freshwater inflow.
Changes in freshwater inflow have resulted in losses of habitat, biodiversity, and productivity.<ref name="Effect of Restored Freshwater Inflow on Macrofauna and Meiofauna in Upper Rincon Bayou, Texas, USA">{{cite journal |last1=Montagna |first1=P.A. |last2=Kalke |first2=R. D. |last3=Ritter |first3=C. |title=Effect of Restored Freshwater Inflow on Macrofauna and Meiofauna in Upper Rincon Bayou, Texas, USA |journal=Estuaries |year=2002 |volume=25 |issue=6 |pages=1436–1447 |doi=10.1007/bf02692237|jstor=1352870 }}</ref> Studies also found changes in bioindicator species community’s biomass correlated with changing freshwater inflows, which indicates secondary production changes with altered inflows.<ref name="Implications of Colorado River Freshwater Inflow to Benthic Ecosystem Dynamics: A Modeling Study">{{cite journal |last1=Kim |first1=H. C. |last2=Montagna |first2=P. A. |title=Implications of Colorado River Freshwater Inflow to Benthic Ecosystem Dynamics: A Modeling Study |journal=[[Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science]] |year=2009 |volume=83 |issue=4 |pages=491–504 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0272771409002340 |doi=10.1016/j.ecss.2009.04.033}}</ref> These studies suggest the health of the estuary depends on freshwater inflow.


Below is an example of how an upstream human diversion creates cascading effects downstream.
Below is an example of how an upstream human diversion creates cascading effects downstream.
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== Freshwater inflow management ==
== Freshwater inflow management ==


Many different methodologies aimed at freshwater inflow management to maintain an [[estuary]] have been implemented throughout the world. Studies are aimed at determining the freshwater inflow amount necessary to maintain an [[estuary|estuarine ecosystem]]. One common methodology implemented in studies in several U.S. states including Texas, Florida, and California is to indirectly link estuarine resources (i.e. integrity- species composition, biomass, diversity; function- primary production, secondary production, nutrient recycling; sustainability- habitats, valued resources, ecosystem services) to freshwater inflow (i.e. quantity- timing, frequency, duration, extent; quality; tidal connections) through estuarine conditions (i.e. salinity; sediment; dissolved material; particulate material).<ref name="Hydrological Changes and Estuarine Dynamic"/><ref name="A Conceptual Model of Estuarine Freshwater Inflow Management">{{cite journal|last=Alber|first=Merryl|title=A Conceptual Model of Estuarine Freshwater Inflow Management|journal=Estuaries|date=December 2002|volume=25|issue=6B|pages=1246–1261|url=http://www.swrcb.ca.gov/waterrights/water_issues/programs/bay_delta/deltaflow/docs/exhibits/swrcb/swrcb_alber2002.pdf|doi=10.1007/bf02692222}}</ref> In the Mtata Estuary of South Africa, an Estuarine Health Index is used to compare the current state of the [[estuary]] to a predicted reference state.<ref name="Estuaries and Application to the Mtata Estuary, South Africa">{{cite journal|last=Adams|first=J.B.|author2=Bate, C. G. |author3=Harrison, T.D. |author4=Huizinga, P. |author5=Taljaard, S. |author6=Niekerk, L. V. |author7=Plumstead, E. E. |author8=Whitfield, A.K. |author9=Wooldridge, T. H. |title=Estuaries and Application to the Mtata Estuary, South Africa|journal=Estuaries|date=December 2002|volume=25|issue=6B|pages=1382–1393|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF02692232#page-1 |doi=10.1007/bf02692232}}</ref> In the Caloosahatchee Estuary in Florida, the range of inflow that protects key biota, or the animal and plant life of a region, determines the necessary amount of freshwater inflow.<ref name="Preliminary Estimate of Optimum Freshwater Inflow to the Caloosahatchee Estuary: A Resource Based Approach.">{{cite journal|last=Chamberlain|first=R.H.|author2=Doering, P.H.|title=Preliminary Estimate of Optimum Freshwater Inflow to the Caloosahatchee Estuary: A Resource Based Approach. In S. F. Treat (ed.), Proceedings of the 1997 Charlotte Harbor Public Conference and Technical Symposium|journal=South Florida Water Management District and Charlotte Harbor National Estuary Program|year=1998|volume=Technical Report No. 98-02|pages=121–130|url=http://library.fgcu.edu/chnep/9802-15.pdf|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100617082912/http://library.fgcu.edu/chnep/9802-15.pdf|archivedate=2010-06-17|df=}}</ref> The methodologies for managing freshwater inflow differ slightly but the main goal is to ultimately create or maintain a sustainable [[estuary]].
Many different methodologies aimed at freshwater inflow management to maintain an [[estuary]] have been implemented throughout the world. Studies are aimed at determining the freshwater inflow amount necessary to maintain an [[estuary|estuarine ecosystem]]. One common methodology implemented in studies in several U.S. states including Texas, Florida, and California is to indirectly link estuarine resources (i.e. integrity- species composition, biomass, diversity; function- primary production, secondary production, nutrient recycling; sustainability- habitats, valued resources, ecosystem services) to freshwater inflow (i.e. quantity- timing, frequency, duration, extent; quality; tidal connections) through estuarine conditions (i.e. salinity; sediment; dissolved material; particulate material).<ref name="Hydrological Changes and Estuarine Dynamic"/><ref name="A Conceptual Model of Estuarine Freshwater Inflow Management">{{cite journal|last=Alber|first=Merryl|title=A Conceptual Model of Estuarine Freshwater Inflow Management|journal=Estuaries|date=December 2002|volume=25|issue=6B|pages=1246–1261|url=http://www.swrcb.ca.gov/waterrights/water_issues/programs/bay_delta/deltaflow/docs/exhibits/swrcb/swrcb_alber2002.pdf|doi=10.1007/bf02692222}}</ref> In the Mtata Estuary of South Africa, an Estuarine Health Index is used to compare the current state of the [[estuary]] to a predicted reference state.<ref name="Estuaries and Application to the Mtata Estuary, South Africa">{{cite journal|last=Adams|first=J.B.|author2=Bate, C. G. |author3=Harrison, T.D. |author4=Huizinga, P. |author5=Taljaard, S. |author6=Niekerk, L. V. |author7=Plumstead, E. E. |author8=Whitfield, A.K. |author9=Wooldridge, T. H. |title=Estuaries and Application to the Mtata Estuary, South Africa|journal=Estuaries|date=December 2002|volume=25|issue=6B|pages=1382–1393|doi=10.1007/bf02692232}}</ref> In the Caloosahatchee Estuary in Florida, the range of inflow that protects key biota, or the animal and plant life of a region, determines the necessary amount of freshwater inflow.<ref name="Preliminary Estimate of Optimum Freshwater Inflow to the Caloosahatchee Estuary: A Resource Based Approach.">{{cite journal|last=Chamberlain|first=R.H.|author2=Doering, P.H.|title=Preliminary Estimate of Optimum Freshwater Inflow to the Caloosahatchee Estuary: A Resource Based Approach. In S. F. Treat (ed.), Proceedings of the 1997 Charlotte Harbor Public Conference and Technical Symposium|journal=South Florida Water Management District and Charlotte Harbor National Estuary Program|year=1998|volume=Technical Report No. 98-02|pages=121–130|url=http://library.fgcu.edu/chnep/9802-15.pdf|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100617082912/http://library.fgcu.edu/chnep/9802-15.pdf|archivedate=2010-06-17|df=}}</ref> The methodologies for managing freshwater inflow differ slightly but the main goal is to ultimately create or maintain a sustainable [[estuary]].


== Using ecosystem-based management (EBM) strategies for freshwater inflow oversight ==
== Using ecosystem-based management (EBM) strategies for freshwater inflow oversight ==


Freshwater inflow management strategies require an all-encompassing approach that incorporates a large amount of data on multiple levels. This type of approach is called an ecosystem-based management strategy. [[Ecosystem-based management]] (EBM) strategies require a comprehensive approach to incorporate land, energy, and natural resource use and allocation, involving species management, natural commodities, and humans as components.<ref name="Marine Ecosystem-Based Management: From Characterization to Implementation">{{cite journal|last=Arkema|first=K.K.|author2=Abramson, S.C. |author3=Dewsbury, B.M. |title=Marine Ecosystem-Based Management: From Characterization to Implementation|journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment|year=2006|volume=4|issue=10|pages=525–532|url=http://bio.research.ucsc.edu/people/raimondi/labmeetingpapers/winter2007/arkema_etal.pdf|doi=10.1890/1540-9295(2006)4[525:memfct]2.0.co;2}}</ref> EBM also incorporates data analysis of various interactions over different amounts of time and space.<ref name="Master's Thesis: Stakeholder Perceptions of Ecosystem Services of Coastal Habitats">{{cite book|last=Hutchison|first=L.M.|title=Master's Thesis: Stakeholder Perceptions of Ecosystem Services of Coastal Habitats|year=2011|publisher=Texas A&M University- Coprus Christi|location=Corpus Christi, TX|page=107}}</ref> This may be directed at the maintenance or enhancement of the entire riverine ecosystem, including its various aquatic and riparian biota and components from source to sea.<ref name="A Global Perspective">{{cite journal|last=Tharme|first=R.E.|title=A Global Perspective on Environmental Flow Assessment: Emerging Trends in the Development and Application of Environmental Flow Methodologies for Rivers|year=2003|volume=19|pages=397–441|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/rra.736/abstract|doi=10.1002/rra.736}}</ref> Below are some examples of current [[ecosystem-based management]] freshwater inflow resources from Texas.
Freshwater inflow management strategies require an all-encompassing approach that incorporates a large amount of data on multiple levels. This type of approach is called an ecosystem-based management strategy. [[Ecosystem-based management]] (EBM) strategies require a comprehensive approach to incorporate land, energy, and natural resource use and allocation, involving species management, natural commodities, and humans as components.<ref name="Marine Ecosystem-Based Management: From Characterization to Implementation">{{cite journal|last=Arkema|first=K.K.|author2=Abramson, S.C. |author3=Dewsbury, B.M. |title=Marine Ecosystem-Based Management: From Characterization to Implementation|journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment|year=2006|volume=4|issue=10|pages=525–532|url=http://bio.research.ucsc.edu/people/raimondi/labmeetingpapers/winter2007/arkema_etal.pdf|doi=10.1890/1540-9295(2006)4[525:memfct]2.0.co;2}}</ref> EBM also incorporates data analysis of various interactions over different amounts of time and space.<ref name="Master's Thesis: Stakeholder Perceptions of Ecosystem Services of Coastal Habitats">{{cite book|last=Hutchison|first=L.M.|title=Master's Thesis: Stakeholder Perceptions of Ecosystem Services of Coastal Habitats|year=2011|publisher=Texas A&M University- Coprus Christi|location=Corpus Christi, TX|page=107}}</ref> This may be directed at the maintenance or enhancement of the entire riverine ecosystem, including its various aquatic and riparian biota and components from source to sea.<ref name="A Global Perspective">{{cite journal|last=Tharme|first=R.E.|title=A Global Perspective on Environmental Flow Assessment: Emerging Trends in the Development and Application of Environmental Flow Methodologies for Rivers|journal=River Research and Applications|year=2003|volume=19|issue=5–6|pages=397–441|doi=10.1002/rra.736}}</ref> Below are some examples of current [[ecosystem-based management]] freshwater inflow resources from Texas.


Ecosystem-Based Management Freshwater Inflow Resources from Texas
Ecosystem-Based Management Freshwater Inflow Resources from Texas
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== References ==
== References ==
{{reflist}}
{{reflist}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Montagna |first1=P.A. |author2=Alber, M. |author3=Doering, P. |author4=Connor, M.S. |title=Freshwater Inflow: Science, Policy, Management|journal=Estuaries |year=2002 |volume=25 |pages=1243–1245 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF02692221#page-1 |doi=10.1007/bf02692221}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Montagna |first1=P.A. |author2=Alber, M. |author3=Doering, P. |author4=Connor, M.S. |title=Freshwater Inflow: Science, Policy, Management|journal=Estuaries |year=2002 |volume=25 |issue=6 |pages=1243–1245 |doi=10.1007/bf02692221}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Palmer |first1=T.A. |author2=Montagna, P.A. |author3=Pollack, J.B. |author4=Kalke, R.D. |author5=Deyoe, H.R. |title=The Role of Freshwater Inflow in Lagoons, Rivers, and Bays |journal=Hydrobiologia |year=2011 |volume=667 |issue=1 |pages=49–67 |url=https://www.academia.edu/717042/The_role_of_freshwater_inflow_in_lagoons_rivers_and_bays |doi=10.1007/s10750-011-0637-0}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Palmer |first1=T.A. |author2=Montagna, P.A. |author3=Pollack, J.B. |author4=Kalke, R.D. |author5=Deyoe, H.R. |title=The Role of Freshwater Inflow in Lagoons, Rivers, and Bays |journal=Hydrobiologia |year=2011 |volume=667 |issue=1 |pages=49–67 |url=https://www.academia.edu/717042 |doi=10.1007/s10750-011-0637-0}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Palmer |first1=T. |author2=Montagna, P.A. |author3=Kalke, R.D. |title=Benthic Indications of the Initial Effect of Opening a Channel at Packery Channel |journal=Environmental Bioindicators |year=2008 |volume=3 |pages=205–206 |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15555270802551776?journalCode=uebi20#.Ufa8GVOBYXw |doi=10.1080/15555270802551776}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Palmer |first1=T. |author2=Montagna, P.A. |author3=Kalke, R.D. |title=Benthic Indications of the Initial Effect of Opening a Channel at Packery Channel |journal=Environmental Bioindicators |year=2008 |volume=3 |issue=3–4 |pages=205–206 |doi=10.1080/15555270802551776}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Montagna |first1=P.A. |last2=Kalke |first2=R. D. |last3=Ritter |first3=C. |title=Effect of Restored Freshwater Inflow on Macrofauna and Meiofauna in Upper Rincon Bayou, Texas, USA |journal=Estuaries |year=2002 |volume=25 |issue=6 |pages=1436–1447 |url=https://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/1352870?uid=14083968&uid=3739920&uid=2129&uid=2&uid=70&uid=3&uid=67&uid=35917&uid=5910584&uid=62&uid=3739256&sid=21102502304531 |doi=10.1007/bf02692237}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Montagna |first1=P.A. |last2=Kalke |first2=R. D. |last3=Ritter |first3=C. |title=Effect of Restored Freshwater Inflow on Macrofauna and Meiofauna in Upper Rincon Bayou, Texas, USA |journal=Estuaries |year=2002 |volume=25 |issue=6 |pages=1436–1447 |doi=10.1007/bf02692237|jstor=1352870 }}
* {{cite journal|last=Montagna|first=P.A. |author2=Palmer, T. |author3=Pollack, J.|title=Hydrological Changes and Estuarine Dynamics|journal=Springerbriefs in Environmental Science|year=2013|volume=8|page=94|doi=10.1007/978-1-4614-5833-3|url=https://www.springer.com/life+sciences/ecology/book/978-1-4614-5832-6}}
* {{cite book|last=Montagna|first=P.A. |author2=Palmer, T. |author3=Pollack, J.|title=Hydrological Changes and Estuarine Dynamics|journal=Springerbriefs in Environmental Science|year=2013|volume=8|page=94|doi=10.1007/978-1-4614-5833-3|url=https://www.springer.com/life+sciences/ecology/book/978-1-4614-5832-6|isbn=978-1-4614-5832-6 }}


==External links==
==External links==

Revision as of 12:33, 30 January 2019

Environmental flows can be broken down into instream flow, freshwater inflow, and outflow, as shown in the depiction below. Instream flow is the freshwater water flowing in rivers or streams. Freshwater inflow is the freshwater that flows into an estuary. Outflow is the flow from an estuary to the ocean. This article's focus is upon freshwater inflow.

Estuaries

Freshwater inflow: Freshwater flows into an estuary and mixes with the marine water of the estuarine ecosystem. The mixing of freshwater inflow and the marine water of the estuarine ecosystem occurs spatially and temporally from climatic influences including tidal action, seasonal variability and storms.[1] Mixing is affected by the amount of estuarine system. The tides and the volume of the receiving estuary govern the volume of seawater. Tides are defined as the periodic rise and fall of the surface of the sea along the coast that are driven by the gravitational pull of the moon and of the sun.[2] Although estuaries are influenced by the tides, they are often somewhat protected from storms and tidal action by buffers further offshore including barrier islands and peninsulas.[1]

The low-salinity conditions of the marine water are created when freshwater mixes with the saltwater of the estuarine system. Average [salinity] for freshwater is around 0.5 parts per thousand (ppt) whereas average salinity of the ocean is 35 ppt.[3] The salinity will not be consistent throughout a particular estuary and will be differ from one estuary to the next but its level will range from 0.5 ppt to 35 ppt.[3] In estuaries, primary producers take up nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus.[4] Freshwater inflows carry estuaries, replenishing the stock for phytoplankton use.[4] Sediments settling out and form banks, offshore peninsulas, and barrier islands that protect the estuary from strong tidal action and currents. The sediment also supports beaches and provision the inter-tidal wetlands. Organic material delivered to estuaries by freshwater inflows the primary energy source for organisms living in the estuary.[5] Estuarine ecosystems need freshwater inflow to maintain their productivity, or to continue to produce biomass.

Estuarine ecosystems are fundamentally important and necessary to protect through the management of freshwater inflow because of the many ecosystem services they produce. An ecosystem service is something provided by nature that is of value to humans. Estuarine ecosystems are among the most productive ecosystems on the planet. Estuaries house such species as the blue crab, red fish, flounder, spotted seatrout, and many others for some point of the species’ life cycle. Marine habitats, such as those found in estuarine ecosystems, are valued at providing an estimated US14$ trillion worth of ecosystem goods and services annually, or 43% of the global total.[6] Some economically important estuarine habitats include tidal flats, salt marshes, sea grass beds, oyster reefs, and mangroves. This is why estuaries are important to protect and conserve.

Global change

Global changes caused largely by anthropogenic influences, or human impacts, are altering the amount of freshwater inflows to estuaries.[7] Humans are diverting water from rivers and streams, decreasing the amount of flows making it to estuarine ecosystems. Since the 1960s dewatering, or removal of water from streams and rivers, has doubled and around 60% of the Earth’s runoff is captured.[8] The removal of freshwater from rivers and streams for anthropogenic use before it reaches the coast is having a negative impact on many estuaries. Half of the world’s major cities are within 50 km of the coast, and coastal populations are 2.6 times denser than those further inland.[9] Technological advances in the collection of freshwater is continually improving, further straining available freshwater resources. As the human population grows and the strain on water resources continues, the ability to effectively manage freshwater inflows into estuaries is becoming a priority worldwide.[1]

Dewatering

Changes in freshwater inflow have resulted in losses of habitat, biodiversity, and productivity.[10] Studies also found changes in bioindicator species community’s biomass correlated with changing freshwater inflows, which indicates secondary production changes with altered inflows.[11] These studies suggest the health of the estuary depends on freshwater inflow.

Below is an example of how an upstream human diversion creates cascading effects downstream.

Freshwater inflow management

Many different methodologies aimed at freshwater inflow management to maintain an estuary have been implemented throughout the world. Studies are aimed at determining the freshwater inflow amount necessary to maintain an estuarine ecosystem. One common methodology implemented in studies in several U.S. states including Texas, Florida, and California is to indirectly link estuarine resources (i.e. integrity- species composition, biomass, diversity; function- primary production, secondary production, nutrient recycling; sustainability- habitats, valued resources, ecosystem services) to freshwater inflow (i.e. quantity- timing, frequency, duration, extent; quality; tidal connections) through estuarine conditions (i.e. salinity; sediment; dissolved material; particulate material).[1][12] In the Mtata Estuary of South Africa, an Estuarine Health Index is used to compare the current state of the estuary to a predicted reference state.[13] In the Caloosahatchee Estuary in Florida, the range of inflow that protects key biota, or the animal and plant life of a region, determines the necessary amount of freshwater inflow.[14] The methodologies for managing freshwater inflow differ slightly but the main goal is to ultimately create or maintain a sustainable estuary.

Using ecosystem-based management (EBM) strategies for freshwater inflow oversight

Freshwater inflow management strategies require an all-encompassing approach that incorporates a large amount of data on multiple levels. This type of approach is called an ecosystem-based management strategy. Ecosystem-based management (EBM) strategies require a comprehensive approach to incorporate land, energy, and natural resource use and allocation, involving species management, natural commodities, and humans as components.[15] EBM also incorporates data analysis of various interactions over different amounts of time and space.[16] This may be directed at the maintenance or enhancement of the entire riverine ecosystem, including its various aquatic and riparian biota and components from source to sea.[17] Below are some examples of current ecosystem-based management freshwater inflow resources from Texas.

Ecosystem-Based Management Freshwater Inflow Resources from Texas

Resources Organization Overview
Freshwater Inflow Tool HRI Provides information for understanding and managing freshwater inflow
TX Environmental Flow Program (SB3) TCEQ Provides links to all existing reports regarding freshwater inflow
Senate Bill 3 Nueces BBASC BBASC Explains SB3 process and provides specific Nueces applications (BBEST and BBASC reports)
NERR Science Collaborative MANERR Project to address climate change by helping to establish freshwater inflow requirements
Freshwater Inflows and Estuaries TPWD Case studies of methodologies to estimate changes, impacts, and needs of freshwater inflows
Environmental Flows Information System for Texas CRWR Data models and database to determine environmental flow needs

References

  1. ^ a b c d Montagna, P.A.; Palmer, T.; Pollack, J. (2013). Hydrological Changes and Estuarine Dynamics. Vol. 8. p. 94. doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-5833-3. ISBN 978-1-4614-5832-6. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)
  2. ^ Sumich, J.L. (2004). An Introduction to the Biology of Marine Life, Sixth Edition. Jones and Bartlett Learning. p. 449. ISBN 9780763733131.
  3. ^ a b National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). "Estuaries". NOAA.
  4. ^ a b D'Elia, C.F.; Sanders, J.G.; Boynton, W.R. (1986). "Nutrient Enrichment Studies in a Coastal Plain Estuary: Phytoplankton Growth in Large-Scale, Continuous Cultures". Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences. 43 (2): 397–406. doi:10.1139/f86-050.
  5. ^ Keith R. Dyer & Robert Joseph Orth (1994). The influence of Atchafalaya River discharge on Fourleague Bay, Louisiana (USA) found in:Changes in Fluxes in Estuaries. Fredensborg, Denmark: Olsen and Olsen. pp. 151–160. ISBN 9788785215222.
  6. ^ Costanza, R.; d'Arge, R.; de Groot, R.; Farber, S.; Grasso, M.; Hannon, B.; Limburg, K.; Naeem, S.; O'Neill, R. V.; Paruelo, J.; Raskin, R. G.; Sutton, P.; van den Belt, M. (1997). "The Value of the World's Ecosystem Services and Natural Capital" (PDF). Nature. 387 (6630): 253–260. doi:10.1038/387253a0. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-07-30. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  7. ^ "Comparative Analysis of Marine Ecosystems Organization (CAMEO)". CAMEO.
  8. ^ Crossland, C.J.; et al. (2005). Coastal Fluxes in the Anthropocene. Global Change - the IGBP Series. Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag. p. 232. ISBN 978-3-540-27851-1.
  9. ^ Montagna, P.A.; Kalke, R. D.; Ritter, C. (2002). "Effect of Restored Freshwater Inflow on Macrofauna and Meiofauna in Upper Rincon Bayou, Texas, USA". Estuaries. 25 (6): 1436–1447. doi:10.1007/bf02692237. JSTOR 1352870.
  10. ^ Kim, H. C.; Montagna, P. A. (2009). "Implications of Colorado River Freshwater Inflow to Benthic Ecosystem Dynamics: A Modeling Study". Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science. 83 (4): 491–504. doi:10.1016/j.ecss.2009.04.033.
  11. ^ Alber, Merryl (December 2002). "A Conceptual Model of Estuarine Freshwater Inflow Management" (PDF). Estuaries. 25 (6B): 1246–1261. doi:10.1007/bf02692222.
  12. ^ Adams, J.B.; Bate, C. G.; Harrison, T.D.; Huizinga, P.; Taljaard, S.; Niekerk, L. V.; Plumstead, E. E.; Whitfield, A.K.; Wooldridge, T. H. (December 2002). "Estuaries and Application to the Mtata Estuary, South Africa". Estuaries. 25 (6B): 1382–1393. doi:10.1007/bf02692232.
  13. ^ Chamberlain, R.H.; Doering, P.H. (1998). "Preliminary Estimate of Optimum Freshwater Inflow to the Caloosahatchee Estuary: A Resource Based Approach. In S. F. Treat (ed.), Proceedings of the 1997 Charlotte Harbor Public Conference and Technical Symposium" (PDF). South Florida Water Management District and Charlotte Harbor National Estuary Program. Technical Report No. 98-02: 121–130. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-06-17. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  14. ^ Arkema, K.K.; Abramson, S.C.; Dewsbury, B.M. (2006). "Marine Ecosystem-Based Management: From Characterization to Implementation" (PDF). Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. 4 (10): 525–532. doi:10.1890/1540-9295(2006)4[525:memfct]2.0.co;2.
  15. ^ Hutchison, L.M. (2011). Master's Thesis: Stakeholder Perceptions of Ecosystem Services of Coastal Habitats. Corpus Christi, TX: Texas A&M University- Coprus Christi. p. 107.
  16. ^ Tharme, R.E. (2003). "A Global Perspective on Environmental Flow Assessment: Emerging Trends in the Development and Application of Environmental Flow Methodologies for Rivers". River Research and Applications. 19 (5–6): 397–441. doi:10.1002/rra.736.

External links

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