Qurupuna: Difference between revisions
Content deleted Content added
m Jo-Jo Eumerus moved page User:Jo-Jo Eumerus/Qurupuna to Qurupuna without leaving a redirect: Moving draft to articlespace |
Redirecting Tag: New redirect |
||
| Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
#REDIRECT [[Coropuna]] |
|||
{{Infobox mountain |
|||
|name=Coropuna |
|||
|coordinates={{coord|15|33|S|72|39|W|display=intitle,inline}} |
|||
|coordinates_ref={{sfn|Campos|2015|p=2}} |
|||
|map=Peru |
|||
|photo=Coropuna Volcano.jpg|photo_caption=Coropuna seen from the west}} |
|||
'''Coropuna''' is a dormant [[volcano]] in the southern [[Peru]]vian [[Andes]] that belongs to the [[Central Volcanic Zone]]; it has several summits, the highest of which reaches an altitude of {{convert|6377|m|abbr=off}} above sea level. The volcano, located {{convert|150|km|abbr=off}} from [[Arequipa]], is mostly made of [[ignimbrite]]s and [[lava flow]]s on a basement formed by additional ignimbrites and lava flows, some of which may have been formed by Coropuna itself. Coropuna has been active for at least five million years, with the bulk of the current cone having formed during the [[Quaternary]]. It has had three [[Holocene]] eruptions 6,000, 2,100 ± 200 and either 1,100 ± 100 or 700 ± 200 years ago which generated lava flows. Currently, activity occurs exclusively in the form of [[hot spring]]s |
|||
The volcano is covered by a thick ice cap, the largest in the tropics, with a number of outlet [[glacier]]s; during the [[last glacial maximum]] it expanded to a size of over {{convert|500|km2}}. The ice cap is [[Retreat of glaciers since 1850|in retreat]] with some variation in retreat rates; 2018 estimates imply that it will persist into the 2120s. The retreat of the Coropuna glaciers threatens the water supply of tens of thousands of people, and interaction between volcanic activity and glacial effects has generated mudflows that could be a hazard to surrounding populations if the mountain were to erupt again. Because of this, the Peruvian geological agency [[INGEMMET]] monitors Coropuna and has published a hazard map for the volcano. |
|||
People have lived on Coropuna for millennia. The mountain was considered sacred by the [[Inka]], and a number of archaeological sites have been discovered there including the Inka sites of [[Maucallacta]] and Acchaymarca; the mountain was considered to be one of the most important Inka religious sites in their realm and human sacrificed were offered to the mountain. The volcano also appears in mythology. |
|||
== Name == |
|||
The word {{lang|qu|puna}} means "plateau" and {{lang|qu|coro}} is a common component of toponyms such as at [[Coro Coro, Bolivia]], but its etymological meaning is unclear.<ref name="Holmer1960" /> The name may mean {{lang|qu|Qoripuna}}, "Puna of Gold",<ref name="Trawick2003" /> "cold, snowy" or "cut off at the top".<ref name="Wilson2009" /> The name is also spelled as {{lang|qu|Qhuru Puna}}.<ref name="Besom2010" /> There is another volcano in the [[Andahua volcanic field]] with the name Coropuna; it is unrelated to the Coropuna volcano.{{sfn|Cuber|Panajew|Gałaś|2015|p=66}} |
|||
== Geography and geomorphology == |
|||
Coropuna lies in the [[Andes]] of Peru,{{sfn|Bromley|Hall|Rademaker|Todd|2011|p=306}} on the border between the [[Castilla Province|Castilla]] and [[Condesuyos Province]]s{{sfn|Marinque|Marino|Enderlin|Edwards|2018|p=176}} of the [[Arequipa Department]].{{sfn|Forget|Thouret|Kuentz|Fontugne|2008|p=16}} {{sfn|Marinque|Marino|Enderlin|Edwards|2018|p=176}} Towns around the volcano belong to the [[Chuquibamba District|Chuquibamba]], [[Machaguay District|Machaguay]], [[Pampacolca District|Pampacolca]] and [[Viraco District]]s.{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=3}} |
|||
The volcano can be reached through [[paved road]]s that come to Andahua, either from [[Arequipa]] or through [[Aplao]] from the [[Pan American Highway]].{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=4}} Roads pass along the northern and western sides of the volcano.{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=10}} |
|||
=== Regional === |
|||
It is part of the {{ill|Cordillera Ampato|es}} mountain range, which contains almost a hundred glaciers,{{sfn|Racoviteanu|Manley|Arnaud|Williams|2007|p=111}} and {{convert|100|km}} from the [[Pacific Ocean]].{{sfn|Schotterer|Delachaux|Ledru|Angelis|2009|p=28}} More generally, Coropuna is part of the [[Andes]], the longest mountain chain in the world which reaches from [[Tierra del Fuego]] in the south to [[Venezuela]] and runs along the coast of the [[Pacific Ocean]].{{sfn|Cuber|Panajew|Gałaś|2015|p=61}} |
|||
The city of [[Arequipa]] is located {{convert|150|km}} southeast from the volcano.{{sfn|Bromley|Hall|Rademaker|Todd|2011|p=306}} A number of villages surround the volcano, from northwest clockwise around the mountains these are Ocororuro, Arma, Maucallacta, Purhua Purhua, Chaupipuna, Utchu-Amayani, Torilla, Patilla, Pallca, Alco Llacta, Viques, Campanayo, Pecoy, Tagre, Pillcull, Chupacca, Chipcama, Cabra Grande, Pampacolca, Huncor, Huanjo, Santa Maria, Toma de Hayllaura and Huayllaura and more.{{sfn|Forget|Thouret|Kuentz|Fontugne|2008|p=18}} There are no habitations above {{convert|5200|m}} elevation.{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=7}} [[Agriculture]] and [[animal husbandry]] are the most important economic activities in the region,{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=61}} but [[mining]] takes place as well.{{sfn|Núñez Juárez|Steinmüller|1998|p=52}} |
|||
The volcano is part of the [[Central Volcanic Zone]],{{sfn|Bromley|Hall|Rademaker|Todd|2011|p=306}} one of the four volcanic belts of the Andes; the other three are the [[Northern Volcanic Zone]], the [[Southern Volcanic Zone]] and the [[Austral Volcanic Zone]].{{sfn|de Silva|Francis|1990|p=287}} The Central Volcanic Zone includes the volcanoes of southern Peru{{sfn|Gómez|Macías|Arce|Sánchez-Nuñez|2012|p=1024}} and in total features about 44 stratovolcanoes,{{sfn|Cuber|Panajew|Gałaś|2015|p=63}} including many of the highest in the world.{{sfn|de Silva|Francis|1990|p=287}} Important volcanoes in southern Peru are from northwest to southeast [[Sara Sara]], [[Solimana]], Coropuna, [[Mismi]], [[Ampato]], [[Hualca Hualca]], [[Sabancaya]] [[Chachani]], [[Misti]], [[Ubinas]], [[Huaynaputina]], [[Tutupaca]], [[Yucamane]] and [[Casiri]].{{sfn|Cuber|Panajew|Gałaś|2015|p=62}}{{sfn|Weibel|Frangipane-Gysel|Hunziker|1978|p=247}} Aside from [[stratovolcano]]es, large [[caldera]]s of [[Neogene]] age also occur close to Coropuna.{{sfn|Cuber|Panajew|Gałaś|2015|p=62}} 16 volcanoes in Peru are considered to be active or potentially active, including [[Huaynaputina]] which in 1600 had a major eruption with a [[volcanic explosivity index]] of 6, which claimed over 1500 victims and caused devastation in southern Peru.{{sfn|Vela|Cáceres|Calderón|Chijcheapaza|2016|p=4}} |
|||
=== Local === |
|||
==== General outline ==== |
|||
Coropuna has a pear-shaped outline{{sfn|Weibel|Frangipane-Gysel|Hunziker|1978|p=246}} and is a {{convert|20|km}} long ridge with an east-west trend{{sfn|Forget|Thouret|Kuentz|Fontugne|2008|p=16}} which features four separate domes forming summits and broad saddles between the domes;{{sfn|Bromley|Hall|Rademaker|Todd|2011|p=306}}{{sfn|Bromley|Hall|Schaefer|Winckler|2011|p=38}} in addition there is a dome north of this line.<ref name="GVP" /> A {{convert|5558|m}} high subsidiary peak named Cerro Cuncaicha lies east of Coropuna{{sfn|Palenque|Niño de Guzmán|Choque|Álvarez|2018|p=105}} and is a [[stratovolcano]].<ref name="Mapa2017" /> Coropuna covers a surface area of {{convert|240|km2}}.{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=35}} |
|||
The volcano is formed by alternating layers of [[ignimbrite]] and [[lava]];{{sfn|Weibel|Frangipane-Gysel|Hunziker|1978|p=246}} and consists of coalesced [[stratovolcano]]es{{sfn|Úbeda Palenque|2013|p=124}} and seven separate [[coulee]]s.{{sfn|Forget|Thouret|Kuentz|Fontugne|2008|p=17}} Ice cover makes it difficult to discern the structure of the volcano;{{sfn|de Silva|Francis|1990|p=292}} in total, about{{sfn|de Silva|Francis|1990|p=292}} six separate structures have been counted.{{sfn|Bullard|1962|p=444}}<ref name="IGdP2018" />{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=35}} Six not readily recognizable [[summit crater]]s have been identified on the volcano.{{sfn|Forget|Thouret|Kuentz|Fontugne|2008|p=18}}{{sfn|Weibel|Frangipane-Gysel|Hunziker|1978|p=246}} Additional [[lava dome]]s form a southeastward trending row on the southwestern side of the volcano,{{sfn|Forget|Thouret|Kuentz|Fontugne|2008|p=18}} and [[dike]]s crop out close to Lake [[Pallarcocha]].{{sfn|Forget|Thouret|Kuentz|Fontugne|2008|p=18}} It has further been suggested that Coropuna overlies the margin of a buried [[caldera]].<ref name="Yates2013" /> |
|||
The flanks of Coropuna consist of glaciated terrain, [[lava flow]]s with gentle slopes{{sfn|Racoviteanu|Manley|Arnaud|Williams|2007|p=112}} and blocky lava cropping out from underneath the ice.{{sfn|Cuber|Panajew|Gałaś|2015|p=63}} Areas of [[hydrothermal]]ly altered rocks, [[lava flow]]s, [[pyroclastic flow]]s and areas covered by [[volcanic ash]] occur all around Coropuna.{{sfn|Forget|Thouret|Kuentz|Fontugne|2008|p=18}} Especially on the northern and southern side of the mountain, [[wetland]]s can be found.<ref name="Mapa2017" /> Coropuna is covered by [[snow]],{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=35}} and glacial activity has eroded the volcanic rocks, carving valleys into them or removing the rocks altogether.{{sfn|Palenque|Niño de Guzmán|Choque|Álvarez|2018|p=104}} This process has generated U-shaped [[glacial valley]]s such as Buenavista, Cospanja and Tuilaqui on the southern flank and Chaque, Mapa Mayo, Río Blanco, Torcom and Ullulo on the northern one.{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=12}} |
|||
Several collapse [[scarp]]s are found on the mountain, especially around its central sector.<ref name="Mapa2017" /> A [[sector collapse]] occurred on the southwestern flank and formed a [[landslide]] deposit as well as a horseshoe-shaped valley that was later filled by [[glacier]]s.{{sfn|Forget|Thouret|Kuentz|Fontugne|2008|p=19}} Also on the southern side [[lahar]] deposits have been found in the Capiza River valley and appear to relate to Coropuna;{{sfn|García Zúñiga|Mariño Salazar|Valdivia Humerez|2018|p=117}} at least 8 such flows have been identified{{sfn|García Zúñiga|Mariño Salazar|Valdivia Humerez|2018|p=120}} and some lahars have reached the [[Colca River]] valley.{{sfn|García Zúñiga|Mariño Salazar|Valdivia Humerez|2018|p=118}} Lahars are mixtures of water and volcanic rocks that descend the valleys of volcanoes, and are dangerous phenomena owing to their high speed and density, causing large scale destruction and fatalities.{{sfn|García Zúñiga|Mariño Salazar|Valdivia Humerez|2018|p=117}} |
|||
==== Lakes and rivers ==== |
|||
[[Lake Pallarcocha]] is situated on the southwestern flank on formerly glaciated terrain,{{sfn|Úbeda|Palacios|Vázquez-Selem|2012|pp=3-4}} and additional lakes lie on the northeastern side of Coropuna including Laguna Pucaylla. A number of streams and rivers originate on the mountain; clockwise around Coropuna these include Quebrada Chauqui-Huayco, Rio Amayani on the northern side, Quebrada Chinchina/Infernillo, Quebrada Jollpa, Quebrada Caspanja with the lake Laguna Caracara, Quebrada Buena Vista, Quebrada Tuallqui, Rio Testane on the southern flank, Rio de Huayllaura on the southwestern flank, Quebrada del Apacheta,{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=10}} Quebrada Sigue Chico{{sfn|Bromley|Schaefer|Winckler|Hall|2009|p=2515}} and Quebrada Sepulturayoc on the western flank.{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=10}} The Rio Blanco and Rio Amayani eventually form the [[Rio Arma]],{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=21}} while the Rio Capiza discharges water from Coropuna to the [[Colca River]].{{sfn|Caldas Vidal|1993|p=10}} During the dry season, most of these rivers do not carry substantial discharge.{{sfn|Weibel|Frangipane-Gysel|Hunziker|1978|p=245}} |
|||
The volcano is situated on a [[drainage divide]];{{sfn|Silverio|Jaquet|2012|p=5878}} to the west the [[Rio Arma]] is a tributary of the [[Ocoña River]], while to the east the Colca River is part of the [[Majes River]] watershed.{{sfn|Palenque|Niño de Guzmán|Choque|Álvarez|2018|p=104}} An [[endorheic]] area that receives meltwater from the volcano also exists northeast from Coropuna, on Pampa Pucaylla{{sfn|Palenque|Niño de Guzmán|Choque|Álvarez|2018|p=108}} where the lake of the same name is also located.{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=10}} |
|||
==== Surrounding terrain ==== |
|||
Coropuna rises about {{convert|2|km}}{{sfn|Campos|2015|p=2}}-{{convert|3.5|km}}{{sfn|Bromley|Hall|Schaefer|Winckler|2011|p=38}} above the surrounding terrain{{sfn|Campos|2015|p=2}} at {{convert|4500|m}} height;{{sfn|Forget|Thouret|Kuentz|Fontugne|2008|p=16}} the greater elevations above the surrounding terrain are found on the southern side where the Rio Llacllaja has incised the underlying [[basement (geology)|basement]]{{sfn|Bromley|Hall|Schaefer|Winckler|2011|p=38}} almost to the foot of the volcano, forming sharp, amphitheater-like valleys.{{sfn|Weibel|Frangipane-Gysel|Hunziker|1978|p=245}} In general, many deep valleys cut into the flanks of the volcano{{sfn|Vela|Cáceres|Calderón|Chijcheapaza|2016|p=9}} and give the mountain an "impressive" topographic relief.<ref name="GVP" /> |
|||
The region is characterized by high plateaus separated by deep [[canyon]]s, including some of the world's deepest gorges{{sfn|Bromley|Schaefer|Winckler|Hall|2009|p=2515}} that reach depths of {{convert|600|-|3000|m}}.{{sfn|Thouret|Gunnell|Jicha|Paquette|2017|p=2}} Apart from river erosion, giant [[landslide]]s have affected the Altiplano underneath of Coropuna,{{sfn|Gómez|Macías|Arce|Sánchez-Nuñez|2012|p=1025}} such as the Chuquibamba landslide, which took place over the last 120,000 years in the form of multiple collapse events within a [[fault]]-controlled basin.{{sfn|Thouret|Gunnell|Jicha|Paquette|2017|p=14}} |
|||
Geomorphologically, Coropuna lies at the edge of the [[Altiplano]] on the [[Western Cordillera]];{{sfn|Kuentz|Mera|Ledru|Thouret|2007|p=1764}} in the Central Andes this mountain chain is split into two ranges - the western and the eastern Cordillera - separated by the Altiplano.{{sfn|Bullard|1962|p=443}} The Pucuncho Basin{{sfn|Bromley|Hall|Rademaker|Todd|2011|p=305}} and [[Firura]] volcano lie north of Coropuna, while [[Solimana]] volcano is located northwest from Coropuna.{{sfn|Bromley|Hall|Rademaker|Todd|2011|p=306}} [[Sara Sara]] is another volcano in the area.{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=35}} A large [[lava dome]] is found northwest from the volcano{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=10}} while Cerro Pumaranra, a {{convert|5089|m}} high{{sfn|Palenque|Niño de Guzmán|Choque|Álvarez|2018|p=105}} eroded volcano is found northeast from Coropuna. Several lakes lie on the eastern side of the volcano.{{sfn|Forget|Thouret|Kuentz|Fontugne|2008|p=18}} {{convert|19|km}} west-southwest from Coropuna lies the {{convert|4855|m}} high [[Antapuna]],{{sfn|Dornbusch|2002|p=116}} while the [[Andahua]] "valley of the volcanoes" is {{convert|20|km}} northeast-east of Coropuna.{{sfn|de Silva|Francis|1990|p=298}}<gallery mode="packed" widths="360" heights="360"> |
|||
File:CoropunaSouthViewUSGS.jpg|Coropuna seen from the south |
|||
File:Coropuna Este (30293366316).jpg|Coropuna Este |
|||
File:COROPUNA LAKE - panoramio.jpg|Coropuna seen from lake Pallacocha |
|||
</gallery> |
|||
=== Elevation and size === |
|||
Coropuna is the largest{{sfn|Venturelli|Fragipane|Weibel|Antiga|1978|p=214}} and highest volcano in Peru, the highest mountain in the [[Cordillera Ampato]]{{sfn|Campos|2015|p=2}} and the third-highest mountain in Peru.<ref name="Trawick2003" /> The most commonly cited maximum height for the volcano is {{convert|6377|m}},<ref name="IGdP2018" />{{sfn|Vela|Cáceres|Calderón|Chijcheapaza|2016|p=9}}{{sfn|de Silva|Francis|1990|p=292}}{{sfn|Úbeda Palenque|2013|p=24}}{{sfn|Kuentz|Mera|Ledru|Thouret|2007|p=1764}}<ref name="GVP" />{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=3}}{{sfn|García Zúñiga|Mariño Salazar|Valdivia Humerez|2018|p=117}}{{sfn|Palenque|Niño de Guzmán|Choque|Álvarez|2018|p=101}}{{sfn|Forget|Thouret|Kuentz|Fontugne|2008|p=16}} which refers to the northwestern dome of the mountain{{sfn|Forget|Thouret|Kuentz|Fontugne|2008|p=17}}{{sfn|Vela|Cáceres|Calderón|Chijcheapaza|2016|p=9}}{{sfn|de Silva|Francis|1990|p=292}}<ref name="GVP" />{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=35}} also known as Coropuna Casulla.{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=3}} Other estimates on Coropuna's maximum height are {{convert|6380|m}},{{sfn|Kuentz|Ledru|Thouret|2011|p=1216}}{{sfn|THOURET|JUVIGNE|MARIÑO|MOSCOL|2002|p=3}} {{convert|6425|m}},{{sfn|Bullard|1962|p=444}}{{sfn|Cuber|Panajew|Gałaś|2015|p=63}}{{sfn|Silverio|Jaquet|2012|p=5878}}{{sfn|Schotterer|Delachaux|Ledru|Angelis|2009|p=27}}{{sfn|Marinque|Marino|Enderlin|Edwards|2018|p=175}} which would make it the 22nd highest mountain in the Andes,{{sfn|Cuber|Panajew|Gałaś|2015|p=63}} {{convert|6426|m}}{{sfn|Bromley|Hall|Schaefer|Winckler|2011|p=38}}{{sfn|Weibel|Frangipane-Gysel|Hunziker|1978|p=245}}{{sfn|Campos|2015|p=2}} on the western summit,{{sfn|Weibel|Frangipane-Gysel|Hunziker|1978|p=245}} {{convert|6446|m}}{{sfn|Silverio|Herold|Peduzzi|2010|p=314}} or {{convert|6450|m}} high.{{sfn|Bromley|Hall|Rademaker|Todd|2011|p=305}} |
|||
Estimates on the height of Coropuna have varied over time. In the 19th century Coropuna was one of the candidates for "highest mountain in Peru", with mountains in the [[Cordillera Blanca]] making up the other candidates, with the Mapa del Perú (Map of Peru) of [[Antonio Raimondi]] giving an estimated height of {{convert|6949|m}}.{{sfn|WISE|2004|p=97}} In 1910 it was believed that the volcano was over {{convert|23000|ft|m|order=flip}} high and thus the highest mountain in South America ahead of [[Aconcagua]].<ref name="Bandelier1910" /> A North American expedition in 1909 determined that Coropuna was not the highest mountain in Peru as it only found an elevation of {{convert|6615|m}} and [[Huascaran]] is higher than this.{{sfn|WISE|2004|p=98}} Coropuna has several (up to ten according to one count{{sfn|Weibel|Frangipane-Gysel|Hunziker|1978|p=246}}) summits which exceed {{convert|6000|m}} elevation,{{sfn|Silverio|Jaquet|2012|p=5878}} and a {{convert|5623|m}} high lower northern summit.{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=3}} The volcano has been described as "imposing".{{sfn|Bullard|1962|p=444}} Some summits have names, such as the {{convert|6377|m}} high northern Coropuna Casulla, the {{convert|6171|m}} high western Nevado Pallacocha and the {{convert|6161|m}} high central Coropuna Central II,<ref name="Hernandez2013" /> Escalera in the western sector of the volcano, Paiche in the central and Yana Ranra in the eastern sector.<ref name="Mapa2017" /> |
|||
== Ice cap == |
|||
[[File:Nevado Coropuna, Peru.JPG|thumb|660x660px|The ice cap seen from space in 2010]] |
|||
Coropuna features an [[ice cap]] consisting of three ice domes and many [[glacier]]s.{{sfn|Marinque|Marino|Enderlin|Edwards|2018|p=179}} It is the largest [[ice cap]] of the tropics,{{sfn|García Zúñiga|Mariño Salazar|Valdivia Humerez|2018|p=117}} which {{as of|2014}} was {{convert|8.5|km}} wide and {{convert|11|km}} long;{{sfn|Marinque|Marino|Enderlin|Edwards|2018|p=179}} the Coropuna ice cap is larger than the ice cap at [[Quelccaya]] {{convert|250|km}} farther northeast which was often considered to be the largest.{{sfn|Marinque|Marino|Enderlin|Edwards|2018|p=179}}{{sfn|Palenque|Niño de Guzmán|Choque|Álvarez|2018|p=101}} A subsidiary peak named Cerro Cuncaicha east of Coropuna has a small ice cap as well.{{sfn|Bromley|Hall|Rademaker|Todd|2011|p=307}} In general, Peruvian glaciers form the bulk of the world's tropical glaciers.{{sfn|Silverio|Jaquet|2012|p=5876}} Aside from glaciers, perennial [[snow]] is also found at Coropuna.{{sfn|Bromley|Hall|Schaefer|Winckler|2011|p=38}} |
|||
The ice cap of Coropuna is about {{convert|80.8|m}} thick,{{sfn|Marinque|Marino|Enderlin|Edwards|2018|p=182}} with maximum thicknesses exceeding {{convert|180|m}}.{{sfn|Silverio|Herold|Peduzzi|2010|p=321}} In 2003-2004 the ice cap had a volume of about {{convert|3.69|km3}} [[snow water equivalent]]s.{{sfn|Silverio|2018|p=49}} [[Ice core]]s have been taken from the Coropuna ice cap{{sfn|Weide|Fritz|Brinson|Thompson|2017|p=3}} and from a summit crater;<ref name="Lin2018" /> one of these ice cores covers a timespan beginning from 20,000 years ago.{{sfn|Engel|Skrzypek|Chuman|Šefrna|2014|p=63}} |
|||
[[Penitentes]]{{sfn|Schotterer|Delachaux|Ledru|Angelis|2009|p=28}} reaching heights of {{convert|2|m}}{{sfn|Cuber|Panajew|Gałaś|2015|p=67}} and [[serac]]s occur on the glaciers,{{sfn|Forget|Thouret|Kuentz|Fontugne|2008|p=18}} while debris cover is rare.{{sfn|Marinque|Marino|Enderlin|Edwards|2018|p=178}} The ice cap also features [[ice fall]]s and dangerous lakes. In the past [[lahar]]s originated from the ice cap{{sfn|Campos|2015|p=2}} and left deposits at the bottom of valleys.{{sfn|Vela|Cáceres|Calderón|Chijcheapaza|2016|p=9}} |
|||
=== Glaciers and periglacial phenomena === |
|||
A number of [[glacier]]s are located in the ice cap,{{sfn|Forget|Thouret|Kuentz|Fontugne|2008|p=18}} their number variously estimated to be 23,{{sfn|Marinque|Marino|Enderlin|Edwards|2018|p=179}} 17{{sfn|Silverio|2018|p=45}}{{sfn|Silverio|Jaquet|2012|p=5878}} and 15.{{sfn|Bromley|Hall|Schaefer|Winckler|2011|p=38}} Some glaciers have been assigned names; on the southwestern flank two glaciers are named {{lang|es|Azufrioc}}, three {{lang|es|Rio Blanco}} and six {{lang|es|Tuialqui}}.{{sfn|Campos|2015|p=7}} Eighteen separate accumulation areas have been found as well.{{sfn|Forget|Thouret|Kuentz|Fontugne|2008|p=24}} There are no substantive valley glaciers presently on Coropuna{{sfn|de Silva|Francis|1990|p=292}} and some glaciers especially in the eastern side emanate from [[cirque]]s.{{sfn|Forget|Thouret|Kuentz|Fontugne|2008|p=18}} The ongoing downward movement of the ice on Coropuna produces [[icequake]]s.<ref name="IGdP2018" /> |
|||
[[Glacier]]s descend to elevations of about {{convert|5100|-|5300|m}} on the southern and to about {{convert|5500|-|5800|m}} on the northern flank.{{sfn|Bromley|Hall|Rademaker|Todd|2011|p=306}}{{sfn|Marinque|Marino|Enderlin|Edwards|2018|p=179}}{{sfn|Forget|Thouret|Kuentz|Fontugne|2008|p=17}} This is higher than the [[freezing level]], owing to the dry climate;{{sfn|Campos|2015|p=2}} the freezing level at Coropuna lies at about {{convert|4900|m}} elevation.{{sfn|Bromley|Hall|Schaefer|Winckler|2011|p=38}} In 1955, the ice limits were located at elevations of {{convert|4900|m}} on the southern and at {{convert|5400|m}} on the northern flank.{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=9}} |
|||
[[Moraine]]s on Coropuna crop out in particular on its northern and southern side{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=10}} and reach lengths of {{convert|3|-|8|km}}, with longer moraines on the northern flank.{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=12}} In general, moraines on Coropuna are steep and have prominent crests as they are little eroded.{{sfn|Bromley|Hall|Rademaker|Todd|2011|p=307}} Gray, fresh moraines up to {{convert|500|m}} from the icecap may reflect the position of the glaciers before the onset of [[glacier retreat]], which has left small mounds that often contain ice between these moraines and the icecap{{sfn|Bromley|Hall|Rademaker|Todd|2011|p=307}} and small, discontinuous moraines.{{sfn|Bromley|Hall|Rademaker|Todd|2011|p=310}} |
|||
Apart from normal glaciers 78 [[rock glacier]]s have been counted on Coropuna, but only 11 of them are considered to be active,{{sfn|Forget|Thouret|Kuentz|Fontugne|2008|p=28}} and the occurrence of [[permafrost]] has been reported as well.<ref name="UbedaYoshikawa2015" /> [[Cryoturbation]],{{sfn|Galán|Linares Perea|2012|p=15}} [[gelifluction]], [[patterned ground]]s,{{sfn|Weibel|Frangipane-Gysel|Hunziker|1978|p=246}} [[solifluction]]{{sfn|Galán|Linares Perea|2012|p=48}} and other [[periglacial]] landforms are noticeable{{sfn|Weibel|Frangipane-Gysel|Hunziker|1978|p=246}} at over {{convert|4500|m}} elevation.{{sfn|Weibel|Frangipane-Gysel|Hunziker|1978|p=246}} |
|||
==== Recent area and retreat ==== |
|||
Measuring the surface area of Coropuna's ice cap is difficult as seasonal [[snow]] can be mistaken for ice.{{sfn|Marinque|Marino|Enderlin|Edwards|2018|p=180}} Area estimates: |
|||
* As stated for 1955: {{convert|122.7|km2}}{{sfn|Silverio|Herold|Peduzzi|2010|p=318}} or {{convert|123|±|15|km2}}{{sfn|Silverio|Jaquet|2012|p=5882}} |
|||
* Based on a glacier inventory in 1962: {{convert|82.6|km2}}{{sfn|Silverio|2018|p=45}} |
|||
* As reconstructed for 1975: {{convert|105|±|16|km2}}{{sfn|Silverio|Jaquet|2012|p=5882}} |
|||
* As reconstructed from [[Landsat]] images in 1980: {{convert|58.0|±|7.0|km2}}{{sfn|Marinque|Marino|Enderlin|Edwards|2018|p=178}} |
|||
* As reconstructed for 1986: {{convert|96|±|15|km2}}{{sfn|Silverio|Jaquet|2012|p=5882}} |
|||
* As reconstructed from Landsat images in 1987: {{convert|52.9|±|4.4|km2}}{{sfn|Marinque|Marino|Enderlin|Edwards|2018|p=178}} |
|||
* As reconstructed from Landsat images in 1988: {{convert|52.2|±|4.4|km2}}{{sfn|Marinque|Marino|Enderlin|Edwards|2018|p=178}} |
|||
* As reconstructed from Landsat images in 1991: {{convert|51.9|±|4.4|km2}}{{sfn|Marinque|Marino|Enderlin|Edwards|2018|p=178}} |
|||
* As reconstructed from Landsat images in 1992: {{convert|50.3|±|4.4|km2}}{{sfn|Marinque|Marino|Enderlin|Edwards|2018|p=178}} |
|||
* As reconstructed from Landsat images in 1995: {{convert|50.1|±|4.4|km2}}{{sfn|Marinque|Marino|Enderlin|Edwards|2018|p=178}} |
|||
* As reconstructed from Landsat images in 1996: {{convert|49.0|±|4.4|km2}}{{sfn|Marinque|Marino|Enderlin|Edwards|2018|p=178}} |
|||
* As reconstructed for 1996: {{convert|64|±|8|km2}}{{sfn|Silverio|Jaquet|2012|p=5882}} |
|||
* As reconstructed from Landsat images in 1998: {{convert|48.0|±|4.4|km2}}{{sfn|Marinque|Marino|Enderlin|Edwards|2018|p=178}} |
|||
* As measured in 2000: {{convert|53.9|km|2}}, which makes up about 22.5% of the volcano's summit area.{{sfn|Forget|Thouret|Kuentz|Fontugne|2008|p=17}} |
|||
* As reconstructed from Landsat images in 2002: {{convert|49.2|±|4.5|km2}}{{sfn|Marinque|Marino|Enderlin|Edwards|2018|p=178}} |
|||
* As reconstructed from Landsat images in 2003: {{convert|48.6|±|4.4|km2}}{{sfn|Marinque|Marino|Enderlin|Edwards|2018|p=178}} |
|||
* As reconstructed for 2003: {{convert|56|±|6|km2}}{{sfn|Silverio|Jaquet|2012|p=5882}} |
|||
* As reconstructed from Landsat images in 2004: {{convert|48.7|±|4.3|km2}}{{sfn|Marinque|Marino|Enderlin|Edwards|2018|p=178}} |
|||
* As reconstructed from Landsat images in 2005: {{convert|47.5|±|4.3|km2}}{{sfn|Marinque|Marino|Enderlin|Edwards|2018|p=178}} |
|||
* As reconstructed from Landsat images in 2006: {{convert|47.5|±|4.1|km2}}{{sfn|Marinque|Marino|Enderlin|Edwards|2018|p=178}} |
|||
* As reconstructed from Landsat images in 2007: {{convert|46.4|±|4.1|km2}}{{sfn|Marinque|Marino|Enderlin|Edwards|2018|p=178}} |
|||
* As reported in a 2007 publication: {{convert|60.8|km2}}{{sfn|Bromley|Hall|Rademaker|Todd|2011|p=306}} |
|||
* As reconstructed from Landsat images in 2008: {{convert|45.2|±|4.2|km2}}{{sfn|Marinque|Marino|Enderlin|Edwards|2018|p=178}} |
|||
* As reconstructed from Landsat images in 2010: {{convert|43.7|±|4.0|km2}}{{sfn|Marinque|Marino|Enderlin|Edwards|2018|p=178}} |
|||
* As reported for 2010: {{convert|46|km2}}{{sfn|Palenque|Niño de Guzmán|Choque|Álvarez|2018|p=101}} |
|||
* As reconstructed from Landsat images in 2011: {{convert|44.9|±|4.1|km2}}{{sfn|Marinque|Marino|Enderlin|Edwards|2018|p=178}} |
|||
* As reported in a 2011 publication: {{convert|46|km2}}{{sfn|García Zúñiga|Mariño Salazar|Valdivia Humerez|2018|p=117}} |
|||
* As reconstructed from Landsat images in 2013: {{convert|44.8|±|4.1|km2}}{{sfn|Marinque|Marino|Enderlin|Edwards|2018|p=178}} |
|||
* As reconstructed from Landsat images in 2014: {{convert|44.1|±|3.9|km2}}{{sfn|Marinque|Marino|Enderlin|Edwards|2018|p=178}} |
|||
Different studies come to different conclusions about the retreat rate, due to the use of different time periods and methodological differences; however, the net retreat trend is clear.<ref name="Veettil2017" /> Retreat rates shortly before 2009 reached 13% in only 21 years.{{sfn|Campos|2015|p=12}} Between 1980 and 2014 the ice cover shrank at a rate of {{convert|0.409|km2/year|mi2/year||abbr=}}{{sfn|Marinque|Marino|Enderlin|Edwards|2018|p=179}} with a more recent estimate amounting to {{convert|0.5|km2/year|mi2/year}},<ref name="Kochtitzky2015" /> with a brief slowdown observed during the late 1990s and early 2000s.{{sfn|Marinque|Marino|Enderlin|Edwards|2018|p=181}} Total shrinkage has been estimated to amount to 26% between 1962 and 2000, and by 18% between 1955 and 2007.{{sfn|Campos|2015|p=2}} |
|||
This retreat tendency is coherent by the retreat of glaciers elsewhere in Peru such as in the [[Cordillera Blanca]], [[Cordillera Vilcanota]] and the mountains [[Ampato]], [[Quelccaya]] and [[Sabancaya]],{{sfn|Forget|Thouret|Kuentz|Fontugne|2008|p=31}} which are due to [[global warming]],{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=9}} and tends to increase during [[El Nino]] years owing to a drier climate. The glaciers lose mass through both [[sublimation]] and [[melting]], but meltwater rarely forms streams; the Quebrada Ullulo on the northern side is the largest such stream.{{sfn|Bromley|Hall|Schaefer|Winckler|2011|p=38}} |
|||
<gallery mode="packed"> |
|||
File:Coropuna glacier areas.png|Glacier trends and extrapolation |
|||
File:Coropuna ice profile.png|Ice profile |
|||
File:Ice loss Coropuna (cropped).png|Ice loss |
|||
File:Ice loss Coropuna-2.png|Ice thickness |
|||
File:Radar profile and glacier evolution Coropuna (cropped).png|Ice schematics |
|||
</gallery> |
|||
=== Glacial history === |
|||
In the past, the icecap on Coropuna was much larger than today, with its surface exceeding {{convert|500|km2}}{{sfn|Palenque|Niño de Guzmán|Choque|Álvarez|2018|p=102}} and glaciers descending to much lower elevations than today.{{sfn|Bromley|Schaefer|Winckler|Hall|2009|p=2515}} Additionally, additional glaciers expanded from the mountains Pumaranra, Pucaylla and Cuncaicha east of Coropuna{{sfn|Palenque|Niño de Guzmán|Choque|Álvarez|2018|p=107}} covered the Pampa Pucaylla northeast from Coropuna and descended the Jellojello valley and other valleys east of Coropuna.{{sfn|Úbeda|Palacios|Vázquez-Selem|2012|p=3}} [[Glacial valley]]s radiate from Coropuna,{{sfn|de Silva|Francis|1990|p=292}} and [[glaciofluvial]] landforms are associated with moraines.{{sfn|Bromley|Hall|Schaefer|Winckler|2011|p=38}} |
|||
Regional climate oscillations are recorded in the ice masses of Coropuna.{{sfn|Úbeda Palenque|2013|p=24}} The glacial history of the volcano has been reconstructed with [[tephrochronology]] (using dated [[tephra]] layers such as these from the 1600 [[Huaynaputina]] eruptions), [[radiocarbon dating]]{{sfn|Forget|Thouret|Kuentz|Fontugne|2008|p=17}} and [[surface exposure dating]] using [[helium-3]].{{sfn|Bromley|Hall|Schaefer|Winckler|2011|p=38}} Three separate moraine generations<ref name="Mapa2017" /> and about five separate glacial stages have been recorded on the volcano.<ref name="GSA2007" /> Glacial advances on Coropuna appear to be synchronous to advances in the [[Northern Hemisphere]].{{sfn|Forget|Thouret|Kuentz|Fontugne|2008|p=30}} Glaciers developed on other mountains in the region as well.{{sfn|Dornbusch|2002|p=123}} |
|||
==== Last glacial maximum ==== |
|||
During the [[Last Glacial Maximum]] (LGM) 25,000 - 20,000 years,{{sfn|Bromley|Hall|Rademaker|Todd|2011|p=308}} valley glaciers on Coropuna were considerably longer than today{{sfn|Forget|Thouret|Kuentz|Fontugne|2008|p=17}} and occupied [[glacial valley]]s up to {{convert|300|m}} deep and {{convert|7|km}} long.{{sfn|Forget|Thouret|Kuentz|Fontugne|2008|p=19}} The glaciers formed tall moraines with as much as {{convert|100|m}} relief,{{sfn|Bromley|Hall|Rademaker|Todd|2011|p=307}} {{convert|8|km}} length,{{sfn|Bromley|Hall|Schaefer|Winckler|2011|p=38}} {{convert|10|-|5|m}} width at the crest and a cover of boulders and [[gravel]]; they include both lateral moraines and terminal moraines where [[outlet glacier]]s ended.{{sfn|Bromley|Hall|Rademaker|Todd|2011|p=308}} On the northern flank, moraine systems have been observed in the Santiago, Ullulo,{{sfn|Bromley|Hall|Schaefer|Winckler|2011|p=39}} Keaña, Queñua Ranra, Cuncaicha, Pommulca and Huajra Huire valleys,{{sfn|Palenque|Niño de Guzmán|Choque|Álvarez|2018|p=108}} while the southeastern flank was covered by glaciers in the Yanaorco, Viques, Cospanja, Buena Vista Este, Buena Vista Oeste and Huasi valleys.{{sfn|Úbeda|Palacios|Vázquez-Selem|2012|p=3}} Rock bars occur in some glacial valleys on the southern and southwestern side of the volcano.{{sfn|Forget|Thouret|Kuentz|Fontugne|2008|p=18}} There are large cirques around Cerro Cuncaicha.{{sfn|Bromley|Hall|Rademaker|Todd|2011|p=307}}{{sfn|Forget|Thouret|Kuentz|Fontugne|2008|p=17}} |
|||
The LGM ice cap had an area of at least {{convert|365|km2}}, with glaciers descending to {{convert|3780|-|4540|m}} elevation, down to the north{{sfn|Bromley|Hall|Rademaker|Todd|2011|p=308}} and the west, probably due to airflow-mediated variations in [[sublimation]].{{sfn|Bromley|Hall|Rademaker|Todd|2011|p=312}} The longest glacier reached a length of {{convert|12|km}} in the Quebrada Ullulo.{{sfn|Bromley|Hall|Rademaker|Todd|2011|p=308}} The retreat of these glaciers commenced between 12,000 and 11,000 years ago.{{sfn|Palenque|Niño de Guzmán|Choque|Álvarez|2018|p=118}} |
|||
==== Other glacial periods ==== |
|||
Ice has been present on Coropuna for at least 80,000 years,<ref name="ÚbedaPalacio2012" /> and at least two pre-LGM advances spread beyond the area that was covered with ice during the LGM.{{sfn|Bromley|Hall|Schaefer|Winckler|2011|p=38}} Old moraines close to the village of Viraco may be 40,000 - 45,000 years old and thus part of an older glaciation,{{sfn|Forget|Thouret|Kuentz|Fontugne|2008|p=22}} and old dates of 47,000 - 31,000 and 61,000 - 37,000 years ago could reflect even larger glacier expansions during [[marine isotope stage]] 3 or 4.{{sfn|Palenque|Niño de Guzmán|Choque|Álvarez|2018|p=113}} Glaciers retreated after the end of the last glacial maximum 20,000 - 18,000 years ago and then re-expanded.<ref name="GSA2007" /> During the [[Lateglacial]], a group of moraines formed between the position of the LGM moraines and the position of the recent moraines,{{sfn|Bromley|Hall|Rademaker|Todd|2011|p=307}} with full glacial conditions lasting until 10,000 - 9,000 years ago;<ref name="ÚbedaPalacio2012" /> minor advances took place about 13,000 - 9,000 and 6,000 years ago.{{sfn|Úbeda|Palacios|Vázquez-Selem|2012|p=5}} The late glacial advances coincide with similar glacier expansions worldwide{{sfn|Bromley|Schaefer|Winckler|Hall|2009|p=2520}} and some of them may correlate with the [[Younger Dryas]] cold period or the [[Antarctic Cold Reversal]].{{sfn|Bromley|Hall|Schaefer|Winckler|2011|p=42}} During the [[Little Ice Age]], glaciers on Coropuna did not expand much but some rock glaciers might have formed during that time. The glaciers reached about {{convert|4900|m}} elevation.{{sfn|Forget|Thouret|Kuentz|Fontugne|2008|p=30}} |
|||
== Geology == |
|||
[[File:South American plates.png|thumb|Plates in South America]] |
|||
Off the coast of Peru, the [[Nazca Plate]] [[subduct]]s beneath the [[South America Plate]] at a rate of {{convert|9|cm/year|in/year}}.{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=59}} This subduction process along with the subduction of the [[Antarctic Plate]] also underneath the South America Plate is responsible for the volcanism in the Andes and the uplift of this mountain chain.<ref name="Stern2004" /> The Andes in the area of Coropuna are still uplifting;{{sfn|Weibel|Frangipane-Gysel|Hunziker|1978|p=246}} in the [[Western Cordillera]] uplift commenced about 50 million years ago, paused then until 25 million years ago and increased substantially after about 10 million years ago.{{sfn|Thouret|Gunnell|Jicha|Paquette|2017|p=3}} |
|||
The volcano is part of the [[volcanic arc]] of southern Peru{{sfn|García Zúñiga|Mariño Salazar|Valdivia Humerez|2018|p=117}} and is considered to be a member of the Barroso volcanic arc.{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=9}} There are over six hundred volcanoes in southern Peru{{sfn|Venturelli|Fragipane|Weibel|Antiga|1978|p=213}} and the entire [[Western Cordillera]] from southern Peru to northern Chile is covered with volcanic rocks, although present-day volcanic activity is scarce.{{sfn|Weibel|Frangipane-Gysel|Hunziker|1978|p=245}} Many of the older volcanoes are deeply eroded by glaciation while younger volcanoes often still resemble cones.{{sfn|Bullard|1962|p=443}} |
|||
Volcanic activity in the Andes occurred during three eras. The first was between 195 and 190 million years ago and formed the Chocolate Formation. The second between 78 and 50 million years ago generated the Toquepala Formation and the Andean [[batholits]].{{sfn|Thouret|Gunnell|Jicha|Paquette|2017|p=3}} Volcanic activity in southern Peru commenced about 13 million years ago.{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=57}} One first volcanic unit after being eroded and folded was covered by a second [[lava]] and [[tuff]] unit which in turn was followed by the emplacement of large volcanoes.{{sfn|Bullard|1962|p=443}} Ignimbritic and stratovolcanic activity - at times subdivided into a "rhyolitic" and an "andesitic" formation - alternated.{{sfn|Weibel|Frangipane-Gysel|Hunziker|1978|p=245}} |
|||
Coropuna is constructed atop of 14 million years old{{sfn|Venturelli|Fragipane|Weibel|Antiga|1978|p=214}} [[ignimbrite]]s{{sfn|Campos|2015|p=2}} and [[lava flow]]s of [[Neogene]] age.{{sfn|Forget|Thouret|Kuentz|Fontugne|2008|p=16}} Individual ignimbrites crop out mainly in valleys, while they are buried beneath more recent volcanic products on the highlands.{{sfn|Weibel|Frangipane-Gysel|Hunziker|1978|p=246}} The volcanic [[basement (geology)|basement]] includes the [[Miocene]] to [[Plio-Pleistocene]] Tacaza, Huaylillas, Sencca and Barroso [[Formation]]s, the latter of which includes Coropuna itself. Below these formations lie the sedimentary Murco, Socosani Formations and the Grup Yura, which are [[sediment]]s of [[Jurassic]]-[[Cretaceous]] age with intruded [[pluton]]s of the same age; finally a Basal Complex of [[Precambrian]] age.{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=37}} The basement is cut by [[fault]]s and [[lineament]]s such as the Pampacolca fault on the southern side of the volcano and the Pumaranra and Cerro Casulla lineaments{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=57}} which trend southeast-northwest and northeast-southwest, respectively. One east-west lineament may have influenced the recent volcanism{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=58}} and the alignment of Coropuna with Sara Sara, Solimana and El Misti may indicate a tectonic control on the volcano in general.{{sfn|Caldas Vidal|1993|p=35}} [[Holocene]] [[normal fault]]s especially on the southern flank of Coropuna have offset lava flows and streams.{{sfn|de Silva|Francis|1990|p=292}} |
|||
=== Composition === |
|||
The rocks erupted by Coropuna are dark brown or black and [[porphyritic]]{{sfn|Weibel|Frangipane-Gysel|Hunziker|1978|p=248}} and consist of [[andesite]],{{sfn|Campos|2015|p=2}} [[dacite]],{{sfn|Palenque|Niño de Guzmán|Choque|Álvarez|2018|p=104}} [[rhyodacite]],{{sfn|Weibel|Frangipane-Gysel|Hunziker|1978|p=251}} [[rhyolite]],{{sfn|Venturelli|Fragipane|Weibel|Antiga|1978|p=215}} trachy-[[basaltic andesite]], [[trachyandesite]] and [[trachydacite]];{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=88}} recent lava flows have been of dacitic{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=49}} or [[trachydacitic]] composition.{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=3}} [[Phenocryst]] phases include [[amphibole]], [[biotite]], [[plagioclase]], [[pyroxene]] and [[titanomagnetite]].{{sfn|Venturelli|Fragipane|Weibel|Antiga|1978|p=214}} Aside from the volcanic rocks, deposits of [[salt]]s, [[sulfur]] and [[travertine]] produced by [[hot spring]]s occur on the southern flank.{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=26}} |
|||
They define a [[calc-alkaline]]{{sfn|Venturelli|Fragipane|Weibel|Antiga|1978|p=215}} [[potassium]]-rich suite which resembles that of other volcanoes in the region such as [[Tutupaca]]{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=88}} and Chilean volcanoes.{{sfn|Weibel|Frangipane-Gysel|Hunziker|1978|p=250}} It also contains large amounts of [[rubidium]], [[strontium]] and [[barium]]{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=88}} and appears to have originated through complicated processes{{sfn|Venturelli|Fragipane|Weibel|Antiga|1978|p=225}} of crystallization and [[crust]]al interaction.{{sfn|Venturelli|Fragipane|Weibel|Antiga|1978|p=226}} |
|||
== Climate == |
|||
=== Precipitation === |
|||
Coropuna lies between the [[semihumid]] Altiplano and the [[arid]] western slope of the Andes{{sfn|Kuentz|Thouret|Ledru|Forget|2011|p=236}} and its climate is [[semiarid]], with precipitation at {{convert|6080|m}} elevation reaching {{convert|390|mm/year|in/year}};{{sfn|Bromley|Hall|Rademaker|Todd|2011|p=306}} other reported precipitation values range between {{convert|700|mm/year|in/year}}{{sfn|Weide|Fritz|Brinson|Thompson|2017|p=2}}-{{convert|1000|mm/year|in/year}}.{{sfn|Bromley|Schaefer|Winckler|Hall|2009|p=2515}} Precipitation amount increases farther down to {{convert|226|-|560|mm/year|in/year}} ([[semihumid]]) at {{convert|3000|-|4000|m}} elevation and subsequently decreases to {{convert|98|-|227|mm/year|in/year}} ([[desert]]) at {{convert|2000|-|3000|m}} elevation.{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=7}} |
|||
Most precipitation is in the form of [[hail]] and [[snow]].{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=7}} It falls mostly during the summer{{sfn|Bromley|Hall|Rademaker|Todd|2011|p=306}} [[wet season]] between December and March{{sfn|Bromley|Schaefer|Winckler|Hall|2009|p=2515}} when the [[ITCZ]] moves south{{sfn|Palenque|Niño de Guzmán|Choque|Álvarez|2018|p=98}} and a summer [[monsoon]] is active over South America. Cold water brought from [[Antarctica]] along the [[Pacific Ocean]] by the [[Humboldt Current]],{{sfn|Palenque|Niño de Guzmán|Choque|Álvarez|2018|p=99}} the presence of a stable [[anticyclone]]{{sfn|Úbeda Palenque|2013|p=25}} and of a [[temperature inversion]] over the Pacific and the Andean [[rainshadow]] are responsible for this dryness;{{sfn|Bromley|Hall|Rademaker|Todd|2011|p=306}} most precipitation is brought by easterly winds and comes from the [[Amazon]] and the [[Atlantic Ocean]] while the westerly winds that dominate during the dry season do not carry much moisture.{{sfn|Campos|2015|p=2}} Thus, humidity generally decreases in westward direction.{{sfn|Úbeda Palenque|2013|p=25}} |
|||
The amount of precipitation is modulated by the [[El Nino Southern Oscillation]]; during phases of [[El Nino]] the weather is drier, snow cover smaller and glacier retreat increases.{{sfn|Forget|Thouret|Kuentz|Fontugne|2008|p=31}}<ref name="Kochtitzky2016" /> Over longer timespans, increased precipitation in the region occurs when [[iceberg]] discharge and cooling occur in the [[North Atlantic]]; this was the case during the [[Heinrich event]]s and the [[Younger Dryas]] when lakes formed on the Bolivian [[Altiplano]]: The [[Sajsi]] about 25,000 - 19,000 years ago, [[Lake Tauca|Tauca]] about 18,000 - 14,000 and [[Lake Tauca|Coipasa]] 13,000 - 11,000 years ago.{{sfn|Palenque|Niño de Guzmán|Choque|Álvarez|2018|p=99}} Cold periods in the [[Southern Hemisphere]] such as the [[Antarctic Cold Reversal]] between 14,500 - 12,900 years ago may have pushed the [[polar front]] north and increased precipitation as well.{{sfn|Úbeda Palenque|2013|p=25}} Increased precipitation may have delayed the retreat of Coropuna's glaciers after the end of the last glacial maximum.{{sfn|Úbeda Palenque|2013|p=27}} The early [[Holocene]] was also moist at Coropuna, while the late Holocene beginning 5,200 years ago was drier there,{{sfn|Kuentz|Ledru|Thouret|2011|p=1224}} with a pronounced dry period lasting between 5,200 and 3,000 years ago.<ref name="Escobar-Torrez2018" /> Warm fluctuations between about 2,200 and 900 years ago and a cold fluctuation around 970 - 1010 [[AD]] are also recorded at Coropuna.{{sfn|Engel|Skrzypek|Chuman|Šefrna|2014|p=73}} |
|||
=== Temperatures === |
|||
Temperatures decrease upwards from an average of {{convert|12|-|17|C}} at {{convert|2000|-|3000|m}} elevation over a mean temperature of {{convert|7.8|C}} at {{convert|3000|-|4000|m}} elevation and {{convert|0|-|6|C}} at {{convert|4000|-|5200|m}} elevation to below zero above {{convert|5200|m}}.{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=7}} Temperatures fluctuate more over daily timescales than over seasonal ones when measured close to the glaciers.{{sfn|Silverio|Jaquet|2012|p=5878}} Temperatures can reach {{convert|2|C}} to up to {{convert|5000|m}} elevation. During the Little Ice Age, at {{convert|5000|-|5200|m}} elevation temperatures decreased to {{convert|-5|-|-7|C}}.{{sfn|Forget|Thouret|Kuentz|Fontugne|2008|p=30}} Southerly cold waves can sometimes reach Coropuna, leaving traces in [[ice core]]s in the form of southern [[pollen]].{{sfn|Schotterer|Delachaux|Ledru|Angelis|2009|pp=32-33}} |
|||
== Vegetation, fauna and agriculture == |
|||
[[File:Yareta Peru.jpg|thumb|Yareta on Coropuna]] |
|||
Most of the region is covered by [[puna]] vegetation, with the exception of isolated ''[[Polylepis]]'' woods southwest of the volcano and different vegetation types in the west and southeast.{{sfn|Kuentz|Mera|Ledru|Thouret|2007|p=1765}} [[Peat bog]]s have been found especially on the southern and southwestern sides of the volcano, and some of these have been drilled. Otherwise, [[agriculture]] is widespread around Coropuna.{{sfn|Forget|Thouret|Kuentz|Fontugne|2008|p=18}} In terms of animal life, the [[Andean condor]] and the [[vicuña]] occur in the region.{{sfn|Cuber|Panajew|Gałaś|2015|p=67}} Several [[butterfly]] species have been identified first at Coropuna.<ref name="Larico2018" /> |
|||
Several distinct vegetation belts have been identified: |
|||
* Between {{convert|800|-|2500|m}} lies [[steppe]] vegetation with ''[[Ambrosia]]'' [[shrub]]s and [[cacti]]. [[Irrigation]] permits the cultivation of [[garlic]], [[olive]], [[onion]], [[potato]], [[rice]], [[sugar cane]] and [[wheat]]; [[pasture]]s are also present.{{sfn|Kuentz|Thouret|Ledru|Forget|2011|pp=241-242}} |
|||
* The steppe vegetation is also present between {{convert|2500|-|3500|m}} in the "pre-Puna", but it is denser here{{sfn|Kuentz|Thouret|Ledru|Forget|2011|p=242}} and includes shrubs of the [[asteraceae]] family, such as ''[[Ambrosia]]'', ''[[Diplostephium]]'' and ''[[Senecio]]''.{{sfn|Kuentz|Ledru|Thouret|2011|p=1216}} Agricultural products here include [[alfalfa]] but also [[dairy]]ing, and [[eucalyptus]] and [[pine tree]]s have been planted to supply wood for the local population.{{sfn|Kuentz|Thouret|Ledru|Forget|2011|p=242}} |
|||
* Between {{convert|3000|-|4000|m}} lies the supratropical facies on partly man-made volcanic [[soil]]s and includes [[shrub]]s and [[thorn]]y vegetation in very wet and very dry areas, respectively. Agriculture takes place here, including [[kiwicha]], [[maize]], [[quinoa]] and [[vegetables]]{{sfn|Kuentz|Mera|Ledru|Thouret|2007|pp=1767-1768}} on [[terrace]] fields.{{sfn|Kuentz|Thouret|Ledru|Forget|2011|p=242}} Dominant natural plants between {{convert|3500|-|4000|m}} are herbaceous plants of the [[Fabaceae]] and [[Solanaceae]] families, as well as asteraceae shrubs.{{sfn|Kuentz|Ledru|Thouret|2011|p=1216}} |
|||
* Between {{convert|4000|-|4800|m}} vegetation occurs in [[marsh]]es and [[peat bog]]s where sufficient water is available, in the form of relic ''[[Polylepis]]'' woodlands as well as herbaceous [[puna]] vegetation{{sfn|Kuentz|Mera|Ledru|Thouret|2007|pp=1768-1769}} which is particularly widespread during the wet season. These areas are used for [[pasture]] of [[alpaca]]s, [[llama]]s as well as [[fishing]] in wetlands and wood in the ''Polylepis'' woods; hamlets are found close to wetlands and the forests.{{sfn|Kuentz|Thouret|Ledru|Forget|2011|p=242}} Plant genera found here are ''[[Baccharis]]'', ''[[Calamagrostis]]'', ''[[Chuquiraga]]'', ''[[Festuca]]'', ''[[Parastrephia]]'', ''[[Senecio]]'' and ''[[Stipa]]''.{{sfn|Kuentz|Ledru|Thouret|2011|p=1216}} |
|||
* Above {{convert|4800|m}} lies the so-called "Puna brava" with herbs and deep-rooted plants that have to withstand [[permafrost]] conditions.{{sfn|Kuentz|Mera|Ledru|Thouret|2007|p=1769}} The [[cushion plant]] [[yareta]] which is used as a fuel source is the dominant plant in this belt,{{sfn|Kuentz|Thouret|Ledru|Forget|2011|p=243}} other plant genera include [[apiaceae]] and [[asteraceae]].{{sfn|Weide|Fritz|Brinson|Thompson|2017|p=3}} Vegetation including [[ichu grass]] and yareta occurs up to about {{convert|5|km}} elevation; higher elevations feature no vegetation.{{sfn|Bromley|Hall|Rademaker|Todd|2011|p=307}} |
|||
== Eruption history == |
|||
The volcano began growing either over five million years ago{{sfn|Tosdal|Farrar|Clark|1981|p=168}} during the [[Pliocene]],{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=43}} or during the late [[Miocene]] but most of the edifice developed during the [[Quaternary]].{{sfn|Bromley|Hall|Rademaker|Todd|2011|p=306}} Volcanic activity has been subdivided into two stages, the now mostly eroded Coropuna I which was characterized by [[explosive eruption]]s such as [[volcanic ash]], [[pyroclastic flow]]s and [[pumice]] but also lava flows, and the Coropuna II above {{convert|6000|m}} elevation which has erupted lava flows from the now snow-covered vents;{{sfn|Palenque|Niño de Guzmán|Choque|Álvarez|2018|p=108}}{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=44}} a Coropuna III sequence has been described as well{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=49}} and the most recent eruption products have been described as the "Andahua Group".{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=87}} Other volcanoes in Peru such as [[Chachani]] and [[Sara Sara]] have similar histories.{{sfn|Weibel|Frangipane-Gysel|Hunziker|1978|p=245}} About 5.3 million years ago, the Sunjillpa volcano was active southwest from Coropuna,<ref name="Mapa2017" /> while Pumaranra is of [[Plio-Quaternary]] age.{{sfn|Palenque|Niño de Guzmán|Choque|Álvarez|2018|p=108}} |
|||
A major [[ignimbrite]] eruption took place about 2 million years ago at Coropuna; its deposits have been identified west of the volcano{{sfn|Tosdal|Farrar|Clark|1981|p=169}}{{sfn|Palenque|Niño de Guzmán|Choque|Álvarez|2018|p=104}} and it led to the destruction of the edifice, which later re-formed on the remains of the old volcano.{{sfn|Weibel|Frangipane-Gysel|Hunziker|1978|p=245}} |
|||
In addition, the Upper Sencca ignimbrite, the Lower Sencca ignimbrite<ref name="Çubukçu2012" /> and the Chuquibamba (Huaylillas{{sfn|Cubukcu|Paquette|Jicha|Thouret|2016|p=11}}) ignimbrite{{sfn|Cubukcu|Paquette|Jicha|Thouret|2016|p=17}} may have originated here as well;{{sfn|Cubukcu|Paquette|Jicha|Thouret|2016|p=21}} the latter was produced by a [[volcanic explosivity index]] 7 class "super-eruption"{{sfn|Cubukcu|Paquette|Jicha|Thouret|2016|p=19}} between 14.3 and 13.2 million years ago.{{sfn|Cubukcu|Paquette|Jicha|Thouret|2016|p=20}} The Upper Sencca [[Ignimbrite]]s form a {{convert|10|-|30|m}} thick apron around Coropuna volcano and other regional volcanoes.{{sfn|Cubukcu|Paquette|Jicha|Thouret|2016|p=17}} These ignimbrites form a compound ignimbrite{{sfn|Cubukcu|Paquette|Jicha|Thouret|2016|p=15}} which was emplaced between 2.09 and 1.76 million years ago;{{sfn|Cubukcu|Paquette|Jicha|Thouret|2016|p=17}} Coropuna appears to have formed on top of one of the Upper Sencca Ignimbrite vents.{{sfn|Cubukcu|Paquette|Jicha|Thouret|2016|p=17}} |
|||
Volcanic activity continued into the [[Pleistocene]]{{sfn|Palenque|Niño de Guzmán|Choque|Álvarez|2018|p=104}} after a hiatus.{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=55}} Several [[lava flow]]s on the western and central sides of Coropuna have been dated, yielding ages ranging from 410,000 ± 9,000 years ago to 62,600 ± 4,300 years ago.<ref name="Mapa2017" /> During the last glacial maximum Coropuna was inactive, but one{{sfn|THOURET|JUVIGNE|MARIÑO|MOSCOL|2002|p=3}} or two tephra layers on a moraine close to the village of Viraco on the southern side have been dated to be about 41,000 and 30,000 - 31,000 years old. These ages correspond to [[radiocarbon]] ages of 37,370 ± 1,160 and 27,200 ± 300 years. These tephras may have originated in [[fissure eruption]]s associated with the three recent lava flows.{{sfn|Forget|Thouret|Kuentz|Fontugne|2008|p=22}} In postglacial times [[lava bomb]]s, [[lapilli]] and [[volcanic ash]] were emplaced on previously glaciated terrain.{{sfn|Palenque|Niño de Guzmán|Choque|Álvarez|2018|p=108}} and [[pumice]] deposits may have formed during the [[Holocene]].{{sfn|Vela|Cáceres|Calderón|Chijcheapaza|2016|p=9}} |
|||
=== Holocene === |
|||
No historical eruptions of Coropuna are known{{sfn|Marinque|Marino|Enderlin|Edwards|2018|p=175}} and the volcano was formerly considered to be long extinct;{{sfn|Bullard|1962|p=444}} however young-looking{{sfn|de Silva|Francis|1990|p=292}} [[aa]] [[lava flow]]s were erupted during the [[Holocene]] and in part overlie [[lateglacial]] [[moraine]]s{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=49}}{{sfn|Bromley|Hall|Rademaker|Todd|2011|p=306}}{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=15}} and have a young appearance;{{sfn|de Silva|Francis|1990|p=292}} their vents are hidden beneath glacier ice.{{sfn|Cuber|Panajew|Gałaś|2015|p=63}}} These lava flows are found on the west-northwest, south-southeast and northeast side of the mountain:{{sfn|Bromley|Hall|Rademaker|Todd|2011|p=307}} |
|||
* The with {{convert|8.5|km}} longest{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=49}} northwesterly lava flow occupies the Cerro Sepulturayoc valley{{sfn|Úbeda|Palacios|Vázquez-Selem|2012|p=3}} and dates to about 6,000 years ago.{{sfn|Úbeda|Palacios|Vázquez-Selem|2012|p=3}} |
|||
* The southeasterly flow lies in the Cospanja valley and is either 1,100 ± 100 years{{sfn|Úbeda|Palacios|Vázquez-Selem|2012|p=4}} or 700 ± 200 years old,<ref name="Mapa2017" /> the latter dating is by [[cosmogenic isotope dating]].{{sfn|García Zúñiga|Mariño Salazar|Valdivia Humerez|2018|p=117}} |
|||
* The dark, young looking<ref name="GVPP" /> northeasterly lava flow{{sfn|Palenque|Niño de Guzmán|Choque|Álvarez|2018|p=105}} is located in the Queñua Ranra valley.{{sfn|Palenque|Niño de Guzmán|Choque|Álvarez|2018|p=108}} Its emplacement was preceded by the eruption of [[lava bomb]]s that cover the valley and by the production of a [[lahar]] that advanced {{convert|14|km}} from its source. The eruption took place about 2,100 ± 200 years ago{{sfn|Palenque|Niño de Guzmán|Choque|Álvarez|2018|p=109}} by [[cosmogenic isotope dating]];{{sfn|García Zúñiga|Mariño Salazar|Valdivia Humerez|2018|p=117}} whether a secondary lava flow in the same valley was erupted at the same time or later is not clear as the secondary lava flow has not been dated.{{sfn|Palenque|Niño de Guzmán|Choque|Álvarez|2018|p=109}} |
|||
The ages of the flows indicate an eastward shift in activity.<ref name="ÚbedaPalacio2012" /> These lava flows are the most recent manifestation of volcanic activity{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=3}} and it implies that Coropuna is still active;{{sfn|Marinque|Marino|Enderlin|Edwards|2018|p=175}} it is considered to be a [[dormant volcano]].{{sfn|THOURET|JUVIGNE|MARIÑO|MOSCOL|2002|p=2}} There is no evidence of [[Holocene]] tephras in [[peat bog]] [[drill core]]s.{{sfn|THOURET|JUVIGNE|MARIÑO|MOSCOL|2002|p=3}} |
|||
=== Present day status === |
|||
The volcano is still [[hydrothermal]]ly active.{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=3}} Six [[hot spring]]s are found on Coropuna, mostly on the southeastern foot,{{sfn|INGEMMET|2015|p=12}} such as at Acopallpa, Antaura, Viques, Ccollpa, and Aguas Calientes and Huamaní Loma on the northern flank; temperatures range {{convert|51|-|18|C}}.{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=25}} With the exception of the last two which are situated in glacial terrain, these hot springs rise within valleys from rock fractures.{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=26}} Geochemical analyses of the water from these springs published in 2015 show no major variations in composition, implying a stable volcanic system.{{sfn|INGEMMET|2015|p=18}} Whether [[solfataric]] or [[fumarolic]] activity occurs at Coropuna is unclear,<ref name="GVP" />{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=25}} and the thick glaciation indicates that the summit craters have no [[thermal]] activity.{{sfn|de Silva|Francis|1990|p=292}} |
|||
The first volcano activity report published in 2018 noted ongoing [[seismic]] activity involving [[volcano-tectonic]] earthquakes.<ref name="IGdP2018" /> [[Seismic swarm]]s were observed at Coropuna after the [[2001 southern Peru earthquake]]{{sfn|Lohman|Pritchard|Holtkamp|2011|p=139}} and were possibly triggered by the earthquake.{{sfn|Lohman|Pritchard|Holtkamp|2011|p=144}} Observations of [[deformation]] of the volcanic edifice have shown that [[gravitational instability]] and [[soil]] water absorption result in movements of part of the volcano but as a whole Coropuna shows no evidence of volcanic deformation.{{sfn|INGEMMET|2015|pp=27-28}} |
|||
=== Hazards and monitoring === |
|||
The Peruvian [[Instituto Geológico Minero y Metalúrgico]] monitors Coropuna volcano for activity, using data such as the composition of hot spring waters{{sfn|INGEMMET|2015|p=11}} and the shape of the volcano as estimated by [[satellite]] images,{{sfn|INGEMMET|2015|p=25}} [[GPS]] and [[geodesy]].{{sfn|INGEMMET|2015|p=27}} A volcanic hazard map has been published as well;{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=75}} the sites most at risk are towns on the steep southern valleys.{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=88}} |
|||
Together with [[El Misti]], Sabancaya and [[Ubinas]] Coropuna is considered to be one of Peru's most dangerous volcanoes.{{sfn|Vela|Cáceres|Calderón|Chijcheapaza|2016|p=28}} The presence of an ice cap creates a hazard of [[lahar]]s such as those that in 1985 killed over 23,000 at [[Nevado del Ruiz]] volcano in [[Colombia]],{{sfn|Marinque|Marino|Enderlin|Edwards|2018|p=175}} if incandescent volcanic rocks melt the ice.{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=61}} At Coropuna the danger is further increased by the steep slopes around Coropuna and the concentration of people in the valleys;{{sfn|Úbeda|Palacios|Vázquez-Selem|2012|p=1}} the terrain around the volcano has one of the greatest topographic reliefs in the world and a number of towns lie on the floor of the Majes valley, down to the [[Pacific Ocean]] where the important town [[Camana]]{{sfn|de Silva|Francis|1990|p=292}} with 20,000 inhabitants lies.<ref name="ChesterDegg2000" /> A number of towns could be threatened by lahars{{sfn|Vela|Cáceres|Calderón|Chijcheapaza|2016|loc=Anexo No.4}} and according to the 2007 census about 110481 people lived in the provinces that span Coropuna and lie downstream of it,{{sfn|Marinque|Marino|Enderlin|Edwards|2018|p=175}} and lahars could reach all the way down to the coast although there is no evidence for past lahars of this size.{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=69}} In addition, infrastructure such as roads, [[antenna]]s and small [[hydropower]] plants are found in the general area.{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=61}} |
|||
[[Lava flow]]s are also a danger at Coropuna.{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=88}} Other hazards with lesser probabilities are [[directed blast]]s, [[lava dome]] collapses,{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=88}} fast-moving massive [[pyroclastic flow]]s{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=73}} and flows of pumice and ash,{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=88}} [[lava bomb]]s{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=70}} and [[shock wave]]s.{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=76}} |
|||
== Archeology and religious importance == |
|||
Numerous [[archeological site]]s lie on Coropuna and especially at the southern and northern bases of the volcano and on its western slope; some of these western sites are located on the ice cap.{{sfn|Forget|Thouret|Kuentz|Fontugne|2008|p=18}} Among these are [[tomb]]s such as ''[[chullpa]]s''.<ref name="Duchesne2005" /> Proposals have been made to make the area of Coropuna including these archeological sites into a [[protected area]].<ref name="Goicochea2009" /> |
|||
After the coastal regions of Peru were first occupied between 11,000 - 9,000 years [[BC]],{{sfn|Kuentz|Thouret|Ledru|Forget|2011|p=243}} [[hunter-gatherer]] first appear in the archeological record in the caves of Cavalca north and Pintasayoc south of the volcano. In the latter cave, [[rock painting]]s interpreted as being 7,000 - 3,000 years BC old have been found.{{sfn|Kuentz|Thouret|Ledru|Forget|2011|p=246}} The first human activity at Coropuna in the Cuncaicha [[cave]] north of the volcano began shortly after the final retreat of glaciers on Coropuna.<ref name="Sandweiss2014" /> The region around the volcano was settled over the last 4,000 years.{{sfn|Kuentz|Thouret|Ledru|Forget|2011|p=236}} |
|||
=== Inka times === |
|||
A larger number of archeological sites arose during the 2nd Intermediate Period{{sfn|Kuentz|Thouret|Ledru|Forget|2011|pp=246-248}} and during the Inka era. The Inka did expand pre-existent [[irrigation]] and [[terrace]] systems which in part still exist today,{{sfn|Kuentz|Thouret|Ledru|Forget|2011|p=248}} including the highest irrigation system in the world<ref name="Chávez2001" /> which was constructed on Coropuna maybe to allow the cultivation of bitter [[potato]]es,<ref name="Orellana2017" /> and built new constructions.{{sfn|Kuentz|Thouret|Ledru|Forget|2011|p=248}} Inka sites are often found at higher elevations than the preceding sites; the highest one is located at {{convert|5700|m}} elevation{{sfn|Kuentz|Thouret|Ledru|Forget|2011|p=249}} and there is evidence of Inka presence to {{convert|6200|m}} elevation.<ref name="Chávez2001" /> In addition, an important branch of the [[Inka road system]] passes by the western foot of Coropuna.<ref name="Chávez2001" /> The region was densely populated; the close location of the mountains and favourable climatic conditions facilitated its settlement.{{sfn|Baca|Molak|Sobczyk|Węgleński|2014|p=3}} |
|||
As noted by [[Spanish]] chroniclers<ref name="Woloszyn2010" /> such as [[Pedro de Cieza de León]],{{sfn|Urton|Hagen|2015|p=105}} Coropuna played an important role in Inka religion and an important temple was situated there.{{sfn|Ziółkowski|2008|p=131}} Pedro de Cieza de León considered Coropuna to be the fifth most important holy site of the Inka empire.{{sfn|Urton|Hagen|2015|p=105}} One archeological site on the volcano may have been a stopover for religious ceremonies to its summit.{{sfn|Ziółkowski|2008|p=138}} ''[[Capacocha]]'', a form of [[human sacrifice]], were offered to the mountain.<ref name="Woloszyn2010" /> Politically, it was part of the [[Tawantinsuyu]] province of Cuntisuyu.{{sfn|Urton|Hagen|2015|p=210}} Reportedly, in 1965 a [[mummy]] was found on Coropuna.<ref name="Schobinger1999" /> |
|||
==== Maucallacta and Acchaymarca ==== |
|||
Among the archeological sites at Coropuna is the important Inka site of [[Maucallacta]], on the southwestern flank of Coropuna;{{sfn|Sobczyk|2012|p=215}} some structures evoke the appearance of the mountain.{{sfn|Sobczyk|2012|p=219}} A royal residence, an [[oracle]] and a political unit were associated with Maucallacta;{{sfn|Ziółkowski|2008|pp=131-132}} the oracle of Coropuna answered the rulers' queries year round, which is why they visited it with a certain frequentcy.{{sfn|Urton|Hagen|2015|p=211}} The Maucallacta site was probably the most important one at Coropuna; in addition, the western summit known as "La Nina" was apparently particularly important.{{sfn|Ziółkowski|2008|p=154}} |
|||
Another important site associated with Coropuna is Acchaymarca west of the volcano{{sfn|Baca|Molak|Sobczyk|Węgleński|2014|p=2}} where about 280 Inka stone structures have been found;{{sfn|Baca|Molak|Sobczyk|Węgleński|2014|p=3}} it is likely that a large number of pilgrims came there for ceremonies honouring the ''apus'' of Coropuna and Solimana.{{sfn|Baca|Molak|Sobczyk|Węgleński|2014|p=8}} |
|||
== Mythology and religion == |
|||
A poorly recorded set of legends is associated with Coropuna,{{sfn|Ziółkowski|2008|p=143}} which was considered to be the most important ''[[apu]]'' of the region,<ref name="Chávez2001" /> the second-most important overall<ref name="Trawick2003" /> and a [[holy mountain]].{{sfn|Sobczyk|2012|p=215}} The mountain was considered to be an abode of the dead, where the deceased ended up into,{{sfn|Fourtané|2001|p=16}} a large village of the departed. In different mythologies instead Coropuna was the starting point for the deceased on a journey to Surimana,{{sfn|Fourtané|2001|p=17}} or the place where the local populations originated from.{{sfn|Baca|Molak|Sobczyk|Węgleński|2014|p=3}} Sometimes [[St Francis of Assisi]] is placed at the top of the mountain.<ref name="Lara2013" /> One story associated with Coropuna narrates how a brother tried to deceive this mountain and some others and was turned into a [[deer]].<ref name="Campos2018" /> Another story narrates of a conflict between Coropuna and other local mountains against an interloping Inca.<ref name="Menaker2019" /> The mountain is still worshipped today.<ref name="Trawick2003" /> |
|||
== Water source == |
|||
Glaciers in Peru are especially during the dry season important sources of water for local communities and for [[hydropower]] generation and their shrinkage is thus of concern;{{sfn|Marinque|Marino|Enderlin|Edwards|2018|p=175}} in the [[Cordillera Blanca]] it has been estimated that about 30% of the dry season runoff comes from glaciers.{{sfn|Marinque|Marino|Enderlin|Edwards|2018|p=183}} [[Meltwater]] from the glaciers on Coropuna sustains the [[baseflow]] of the rivers{{sfn|Silverio|2018|p=44}} during dry periods;{{sfn|Silverio|2018|p=45}} Coropuna is an important source of water for the valleys of the surrounding areas and for the [[desert]]-like [[piedmont]],{{sfn|Forget|Thouret|Kuentz|Fontugne|2008|p=31}} with an estimated 38000 people depending directly or indirectly on water from Coropuna.{{sfn|Silverio|Herold|Peduzzi|2010|p=314}} This water supply is threatened by the retreat of the glaciers{{sfn|Forget|Thouret|Kuentz|Fontugne|2008|p=31}} and would require costly mitigation measures to compensate for its reduction. The Peruvian government has assumed that the icecap will cease to be a source of water by 2025, although a more recent study concludes that the icecap will persist until about 2120.{{sfn|Marinque|Marino|Enderlin|Edwards|2018|p=182}} |
|||
Some of the hot springs on Coropuna are used for bathing.{{sfn|Valenzuela Ortiz|Núñez Juárez|2001|p=26}} The volcano has been considered a potential site for [[geothermal power]] production<ref name="DiazHuaina1988" /> but research published in 1998 considered the available energy of the Coropuna area insufficient for geothermal power production.{{sfn|Núñez Juárez|Steinmüller|1998|p=42}} |
|||
== Climbing history == |
|||
The archeological findings made on Coropuna indicate that the Inka may have reached the summit in the past.<ref name="Echevarria1980" /> 61-year old [[Annie Peck]] and [[Hiram Bingham III]] reached several summits of Coropuna in 1911; Annie Peck raised a banner saying "Votes for Women" on the summit she had ascended, which was slightly lower than the one reached by Bingham.<ref name="Smith2004" /> This banner action was part of the [[women's suffrage]] campaigns that were taking place at that time, and meant to illustrate that women were just as capable as men of physical deeds.<ref name="Schultz2010" /> The other summits of the mountain were ascended later, one of which was reached either 2003 or 2013.<ref name="Hernandez2013" /> |
|||
==References == |
|||
{{reflist|refs= |
|||
<ref name="Duchesne2005">{{Cite journal|last=Duchesne|first=Frédéric|date=2005-08-01|title=Tumbas de Coporaque. Aproximaciones a concepciones funerarias collaguas|url=http://journals.openedition.org/bifea/4963|journal=Bulletin de l'Institut français d'études andines|language=es|issue=34 (3)|pages=418–419|doi=10.4000/bifea.4963|issn=0303-7495}}</ref> |
|||
<ref name="Menaker2019">{{Cite journal|last=Menaker|first=Alexander|date=2019-01-03|title=Becoming “Rebels” and “Idolaters” in the Valley of Volcanoes, Southern Peru|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10761-018-0482-1|journal=International Journal of Historical Archaeology|language=en|doi=10.1007/s10761-018-0482-1|issn=1573-7748|p=9}}</ref> |
|||
<ref name="Mapa2017">{{cite web|last1=Mariño|first1=Jersy|last2=Cabrera|first2=Marquinho|last3=Valdivia|first3=David|last4=Aguilar|first4=Rigoberto|last5=Manrique|first5=Nélida|last6=Thouret|first6=Jean Claude|last7=Edwards|first7=Benjamin|last8=Kochtitzky|first8=Willian|title=MAPA GEOLÓGICO DEL COMPLEJO VOLCÁNICO NEVADO COROPUNA|website=INGEMMET|accessdate=2 March 2019|language=es|date=201|url=http://www.ingemmet.gob.pe/documents/73138/910126/Mapa+Geologico+Volcan+Coropuna+2017.pdf}}</ref> |
|||
<ref name="Lara2013">{{cite journal|last1=Lara|first1=Jaime|title=Francis Alive and Aloft: Franciscan Apocalypticism in the Colonial Andes|journal=The Americas|date=2013|volume=70|issue=2|page=162|doi=10.1353/tam.2013.0096|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/americas/article/francis-alive-and-aloft-franciscan-apocalypticism-in-the-colonial-andes/07496A6D0D4AFF853F1F5C5560C3D848|language=en|issn=0003-1615}}</ref> |
|||
<ref name="GVPP">{{Cite GVP|vn=354003|name=Coropuna}}, [https://volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=354003&vtab=Photos Photo Gallery]</ref> |
|||
<ref name="GVP">{{Cite GVP|vn=354003|name=Coropuna}}</ref> |
|||
<ref name="IGdP2018">{{cite web|title=¿Qué sucede dentro del volcán Coropuna?|url=https://portal.igp.gob.pe/que-sucede-dentro-volcan-coropuna|website=Instituto Geofísico del Perú|accessdate=2 March 2019|language=es|date=2 August 2018}}</ref> |
|||
<ref name="Schultz2010">{{cite journal|last1=Schultz|first1=Jaime|title=The Physical is Political: Women's Suffrage, Pilgrim Hikes and the Public Sphere|journal=The International Journal of the History of Sport|date=1 May 2010|volume=27|issue=7|page=1137|doi=10.1080/09523361003695801|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09523361003695801|issn=0952-3367}}</ref> |
|||
<ref name="ChesterDegg2000">{{cite journal|last1=Chester|first1=D. K.|last2=Degg|first2=M.|last3=Duncan|first3=A. M.|last4=Guest|first4=J. E.|title=The increasing exposure of cities to the effects of volcanic eruptions: a global survey|journal=Global Environmental Change Part B: Environmental Hazards|date=1 January 2000|volume=2|issue=3|page=98|doi=10.3763/ehaz.2000.0214|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.3763/ehaz.2000.0214|issn=1464-2867}}</ref> |
|||
<ref name="Escobar-Torrez2018">{{cite journal|last1=Escobar-Torrez|first1=Katerine|last2=Ortuño|first2=Teresa|last3=Bentaleb|first3=Ilham|last4=Ledru|first4=Marie-Pierre|title=Cloud dynamic contribution to high-elevation peatland growth during the Holocene (Escalerani, Central Andes, Bolivia)|journal=The Holocene|date=5 June 2018|volume=28|issue=8|page=1341|doi=10.1177/0959683618771480|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0959683618771480|language=en}}</ref> |
|||
<ref name="Hernandez2013">{{cite web|last1=Hernandez|first1=Jose Martinez|title=Coropuna Central II (6,161m), first ascent; Corupuna, history|url=http://publications.americanalpineclub.org/articles/13201212226/Coropuna-Central-II-6161m-first-ascent-Corupuna-history|website=The American Alpine Club|accessdate=1 March 2019|date=2013}}</ref> |
|||
<ref name="Smith2004">{{cite book|last1=Smith|first1=Neil|title=American Empire: Roosevelt's Geographer and the Prelude to Globalization|date=2004|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=9780520243385|page=67|language=en}}</ref> |
|||
<ref name="Echevarria1980">{{cite web|last1=Echevarria|first1=Evelio|title=South America, Peru, Southern Peru, Misti and Other Peaks, Pre-Columbian Ascents|url=http://publications.americanalpineclub.org/articles/12198058802/South-America-Peru-Southern-Peru-Misti-and-Other-Peaks-Pre-Columbian-Ascents|publisher=The American Alpine Club|accessdate=1 March 2019|date=1980}}</ref> |
|||
<ref name="Wilson2009">{{cite book|last1=Wilson|first1=Jason|title=The Andes|date=2009|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780199731077|page=59|language=en}}</ref> |
|||
<ref name="Campos2018">{{cite journal|last1=Campos|first1=Nestor Godofredo TAIPE|title=LA SOLIDARIDAD DE LOS WAMANIS Y LAS LAGUNAS CON LOS POBRES: El origen del venado en los mitos Quechuas|journal=Antropología Experimental|date=3 September 2018|volume=0|issue=18|page=284|url=https://revistaselectronicas.ujaen.es/index.php/rae/article/view/3550|language=es|issn=1578-4282}}</ref> |
|||
<ref name="Stern2004">{{cite journal|last1=Stern|first1=Charles R.|title=Active Andean volcanism: its geologic and tectonic setting|journal=Revista Geológica de Chile|date=December 2004|volume=31|issue=2|pages=161–206|doi=10.4067/S0716-02082004000200001|issn=0716-0208}}</ref> |
|||
<ref name="Orellana2017">{{cite journal|last1=Orellana|first1=José Alfredo Vicente|last2=Vera|first2=Carlos Trujillo|last3=Quino|first3=Juan Montoya|last4=Penea|first4=Eliana Linares|last5=Cruz|first5=José Campos de la|last6=Mera|first6=Antonio Galan de|title=VEGETACIÓN Y ACTIVIDAD HUMANA EN LOS ANDES Y AMAZONÍA DEL PERÚ: UNA PERSPECTIVA BIOCLIMÁTICA|journal=Revista Perspectiva|date=28 February 2017|volume=17|issue=3|page=306|url=http://revistas.upagu.edu.pe/index.php/PE/article/view/429|language=es|issn=1996-5389}}</ref> |
|||
<ref name="Besom2010">{{cite book|last1=Besom|first1=Thomas|title=Of Summits and Sacrifice: An Ethnohistoric Study of Inka Religious Practices|date=2010|publisher=University of Texas Press|isbn=9780292783041|page=46|language=en}}</ref> |
|||
<ref name="Holmer1960">{{cite journal|last1=Holmer|first1=Nils M.|title=Indian Place Names in South America and the Antilles. II|journal=Names|date=December 1960|volume=8|issue=4|page=206|doi=10.1179/nam.1960.8.4.197|language=en|issn=0027-7738}}</ref> |
|||
<ref name="Goicochea2009">{{cite book|last1=Goicochea|first1=Zaniel I. Novoa|title=Geología 2008: Expedición Científica Polaca "Cañón del Colca"|date=2009|publisher=Sociedad Geográfica de Lima|isbn=9789972602498|language=es|pages=19–35|via=[[ResearchGate]]}}</ref> |
|||
<ref name="Trawick2003">{{cite book|last1=Trawick|first1=Paul B.|title=The Struggle for Water in Peru: Comedy and Tragedy in the Andean Commons|date=2003|publisher=Stanford University Press|isbn=9780804731386|page=22|language=en}}</ref> |
|||
<ref name="Schobinger1999">{{Cite journal|last=Schobinger|first=Juan|date=1999|title=Los santuarios de altura incaicos y el Aconcagua: aspectos generales e interpretativos|p=15|journal=Relaciones de la Sociedad Argentina de Antropología|language=es|volume=24|issn=0325-2221|hdl=10915/20077}}</ref> |
|||
<ref name="Veettil2017">{{cite journal|last1=Veettil|first1=Bijeesh K.|last2=Kamp|first2=Ulrich|title=Remote sensing of glaciers in the tropical Andes: a review|journal=International Journal of Remote Sensing|date=2 December 2017|volume=38|issue=23|page=7124|doi=10.1080/01431161.2017.1371868|ref=harv|issn=0143-1161|bibcode=2017IJRS...38.7101V }}</ref> |
|||
<ref name="DiazHuaina1988">{{cite journal|last1=Diaz Huaina|first1=Guillermo Nicanor|title=Potential for developing small geothermal power stations in peru|journal=Geothermics|date=January 1988|volume=17|issue=2–3|page=381|doi=10.1016/0375-6505(88)90066-1|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0375650588900661}}</ref> |
|||
<ref name="Lin2018">{{cite journal|last1=Lin|first1=Ping-Nan|last2=Kenny|first2=Donald V.|last3=Porter|first3=Stacy E.|last4=Davis|first4=Mary E.|last5=Mosley-Thompson|first5=Ellen|last6=Thompson|first6=Lonnie G.|title=Global-scale abrupt climate events and black swans: an ice-core-derived palaeoclimate perspective from Earth's highest mountains|journal=Geological Society, London, Special Publications|date=1 January 2018|volume=462|issue=1|page=3|doi=10.1144/SP462.6|url=http://sp.lyellcollection.org/content/462/1/7|language=en|issn=0305-8719|bibcode=2018GSLSP.462....7T }}</ref> |
|||
<ref name="Larico2018">{{cite journal|last1=Larico|first1=Jackie Farfán|title=Mariposas (Lepidoptera: Papilionoidea) de Arequipa, Perú: Lista preliminar con dos nuevos registros para Perú|journal=Revista Peruana de Biología|date=7 December 2018|volume=25|issue=4|page=364|doi=10.15381/rpb.v25i4.15536|language=es|issn=1727-9933}}</ref> |
|||
<ref name="Sandweiss2014">{{cite journal|last1=Sandweiss|first1=Daniel H.|last2=Álvarez|first2=Willy Yépez|last3=Reid|first3=David A.|last4=Leach|first4=Peter|last5=Bromley|first5=Gordon R. M.|last6=Miller|first6=Christopher|last7=Zarrillo|first7=Sonia|last8=Moore|first8=Katherine|last9=Hodgins|first9=Gregory|last10=Rademaker|first10=Kurt|title=Paleoindian settlement of the high-altitude Peruvian Andes|journal=Science|date=24 October 2014|volume=346|issue=6208|pages=466–9|doi=10.1126/science.1258260|pmid=25342802|language=en|issn=0036-8075|bibcode=2014Sci...346..466R}}</ref> |
|||
<ref name="Woloszyn2010">{{cite journal|last1=Woloszyn|first1=Janusz Z.|last2=Sobczyk|first2=Maciej|last3=Presbítero Rodríguez|first3=Gonzalo|last4=Buda|first4=Pawel|title=Espacios ceremoniales del sitio inca de Maucallacta (Departamento de Arequipa, Perú)|issue=35|url=https://www.redalyc.org/html/3713/371336245003/|journal=Diálogo Andino - Revista de Historia, Geografía y Cultura Andina|date=2010}}</ref> |
|||
<ref name="Çubukçu2012">{{cite journal|last1=Çubukçu|first1=H. E.|last2=Gerbe|first2=M.-C.|last3=Thouret|first3=J.-C.|last4=de la Rupelle|first4=A.|last5=Boivin|first5=P.|title=Petrological characteristics of Plio-Quaternary 'Sencca' Ignimbrites, Western Cordillera of the Central Andes in Peru|date=1 April 2012|volume=14|pages=11365|url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012EGUGA..1411365C}}</ref> |
|||
<ref name="Yates2013">{{cite journal|last1=Yates|first1=Martin G.|last2=Lux|first2=Daniel R.|last3=Gibson|first3=David|last4=Kaiser|first4=Bruce|last5=Glascock|first5=Michael D.|last6=Rademaker|first6=Kurt|title=Multi-technique geochemical characterization of the Alca obsidian source, Peruvian Andes|journal=Geology|date=1 July 2013|volume=41|issue=7|doi=10.1130/G34313.1|url=https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article-abstract/41/7/779/131298|p=780|language=en|issn=0091-7613|bibcode=2013Geo....41..779R}}</ref> |
|||
<ref name="Chávez2001">{{cite journal|last1=Chávez|first1=Chávez|last2=Antonio|first2=José|title=INVESTIGACIONES ARQUEOLÓGICAS DE ALTA MONTAÑA EN EL SUR DEL PERÚ|journal=Chungará (Arica)|date=2001|volume=33|issue=2|pages=283–288|doi=10.4067/S0717-73562001000200014|issn=0717-7356}}</ref> |
|||
<ref name="Bandelier1910">{{Cite book|url=http://archive.org/details/islandsoftiticac00band|title=The islands of Titicaca and Koati, illustrated|last=Bandelier|first=Adolph Francis Alphonse|authorlink=Adolph Francis Alphonse Bandelier|date=1910|publisher=New York, Hispanic Society of America|p=24|others=Getty Research Institute}}</ref> |
|||
<ref name="ÚbedaPalacio2012">{{Cite journal|last=Úbeda|first=J.|last2=Palacios|first2=D.|last3=Vázquez-Selém|first3=L.|date=2012-04-01|title=Glacial and volcanic evolution on Nevado Coropuna (Tropical Andes) based on cosmogenic 36Cl surface exposure dating|journal=Egu General Assembly Conference Abstracts|volume=14|pages=3683|bibcode=2012EGUGA..14.3683U}}</ref> |
|||
<ref name="UbedaYoshikawa2015">{{Cite journal|last=Ubeda|first=Jose|last2=Yoshikawa|first2=Kenji|last3=Pari|first3=Walter|last4=Palacios|first4=David|last5=Macias|first5=Pablo|last6=Apaza|first6=Fredy|last7=Ccallata|first7=Beto|last8=Miranda|first8=Rafael|last9=Concha|first9=Ronald|date=2015-04-01|title=Geophysical surveys on permafrost in Coropuna and Chachani volcanoes (southern Peru)|journal=Egu General Assembly Conference Abstracts|volume=17|pages=12592|bibcode=2015EGUGA..1712592U}}</ref> |
|||
<ref name="GSA2007">{{Cite web|url=https://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2007AM/finalprogram/abstract_131033.htm|title=LATE-QUATERNARY GLACIER FLUCTUATIONS AND CLIMATE CHANGE AT NEVADO COROPUNA, SOUTHERN PERÚ|website=gsa.confex.com|access-date=2019-01-20}}</ref> |
|||
<ref name="Kochtitzky2016">{{Cite journal|last=Kochtitzky|first=W. H.|last2=Edwards|first2=B. R.|date=2016-12-01|title=El Niño Southern Oscillation controls snow cover on Nevado Coropuna: measurements using Landsat satellites|journal=AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts|volume=33|pages=C33B–0779|bibcode=2016AGUFM.C33B0779K}}</ref> |
|||
<ref name="Kochtitzky2015">{{Cite journal|last=Kochtitzky|first=W. H.|last2=Edwards|first2=B. R.|last3=Marino|first3=J.|last4=Manrique|first4=N.|date=2015-12-01|title=Peruvian Tropical Glacier May Survive Longer Than Previously Thought: Landsat Image Analysis of Nevado Coropuna Ice Cap, Peru|journal=AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts|volume=21|pages=C21B–0729|bibcode=2015AGUFM.C21B0729K}}</ref> |
|||
}} |
|||
== Sources == |
|||
{{refbegin}} |
|||
* {{cite journal|last1=Baca|first1=Mateusz|last2=Molak|first2=Martyna|last3=Sobczyk|first3=Maciej|last4=Węgleński|first4=Piotr|last5=Stankovic|first5=Anna|title=Locals, resettlers, and pilgrims: A genetic portrait of three pre-Columbian Andean populations|journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology|date=2014|volume=154|issue=3|pages=402–412|doi=10.1002/ajpa.22524|pmid=24801631|ref=harv|language=en|issn=1096-8644}} |
|||
* {{cite journal|last1=Bromley|first1=Gordon R.M.|last2=Schaefer|first2=Joerg M.|last3=Winckler|first3=Gisela|last4=Hall|first4=Brenda L.|last5=Todd|first5=Claire E.|last6=Rademaker|first6=Kurt M.|title=Relative timing of last glacial maximum and late-glacial events in the central tropical Andes|journal=Quaternary Science Reviews|date=November 2009|volume=28|issue=23–24|pages=2514–2526|doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2009.05.012|ref=harv|bibcode=2009QSRv...28.2514B}} |
|||
* {{Cite journal|last=Bromley|first=Gordon R. M.|last2=Hall|first2=Brenda L.|last3=Rademaker|first3=Kurt M.|last4=Todd|first4=Claire E.|last5=Racovteanu|first5=Adina E.|date=2011|title=Late Pleistocene snowline fluctuations at Nevado Coropuna (15°S), southern Peruvian Andes|journal=Journal of Quaternary Science|language=en|volume=26|issue=3|pages=305–317|doi=10.1002/jqs.1455|issn=1099-1417|bibcode=2011JQS....26..305B|ref=harv}} |
|||
* {{cite journal|last1=Bromley|first1=Gordon R. M.|last2=Hall|first2=Brenda L.|last3=Schaefer|first3=Joerg M.|last4=Winckler|first4=Gisela|last5=Todd|first5=Claire E.|last6=Rademaker|first6=Kurt M.|title=Glacier fluctuations in the southern Peruvian Andes during the late-glacial period, constrained with cosmogenic 3He|journal=Journal of Quaternary Science|date=2011|volume=26|issue=1|pages=37–43|doi=10.1002/jqs.1424|ref=harv|language=en|issn=1099-1417|bibcode=2011JQS....26...37B}} |
|||
* {{cite journal|last1=Bullard|first1=Fred M.|title=Volcanoes of Southern Peru|journal=Bulletin Volcanologique|date=1 December 1962|volume=24|issue=1|pages=443–453|doi=10.1007/BF02599360|ref=harv|language=en|issn=1432-0819|bibcode=1962BVol...24..443B}} |
|||
* {{Cite journal|last=Caldas Vidal|first=Julio|date=1993|title=Geología de los cuadrángulos de Huambo y Orcopampa 32-r, 31-r - [Boletín A 46]|url=http://repositorio.ingemmet.gob.pe/handle/ingemmet/166|journal=Instituto Geológico, Minero y Metalúrgico - INGEMMET|ref=harv|issn=0257-1641}} |
|||
* {{Cite journal|last=Campos|first=Néstor|date=2015-12-30|title=Fluctuación altitudinal de la línea de equilibrio glaciar en la vertiente Suroeste del Nevado Coropuna desde el Último Máximo Glaciar (Cordillera Ampato, Perú)|journal=Pirineos|language=en|volume=170|pages=015|doi=10.3989/Pirineos.2015.170008|issn=1988-4281|ref=harv}} |
|||
* {{cite journal|last1=Cuber|first1=Piotr|last2=Panajew|first2=Paweł|last3=Gałaś|first3=Andrzej|title=Stratovolcanoes in the Western Cordillera – Polish Scientific Expedition to Peru 2003–2012 reconnaissance research|journal=Geotourism/Geoturystyka|date=30 November 2015|volume=0|issue=37|pages=61|doi=10.7494/geotour.2014.37.61|ref=harv|language=en|issn=2353-3641}} |
|||
* {{cite journal|last1=Cubukcu|first1=Evren H.|last2=Paquette|first2=Jean-Louis|last3=Jicha|first3=Brian R.|last4=Thouret|first4=Jean-Claude|title=A 25 myr chronostratigraphy of ignimbrites in south Peru: implications for the volcanic history of the Central Andes|journal=Journal of the Geological Society|date=1 September 2016|volume=173|issue=5|pages=734–756|doi=10.1144/jgs2015-162|url=https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/jgs/article-abstract/173/5/734/317509/a-25-myr-chronostratigraphy-of-ignimbrites-in|ref=harv|language=en|issn=0016-7649}} |
|||
* {{cite journal|last1=de Silva|first1=SL|last2=Francis|first2=PW|title=Potentially active volcanoes of Peru-Observations using Landsat Thematic Mapper and Space Shuttle imagery|journal=Bulletin of Volcanology|date=1 March 1990|volume=52|issue=4|pages=286–301|doi=10.1007/BF00304100|ref=harv|language=en|issn=1432-0819|bibcode=1990BVol...52..286D}} |
|||
* {{cite journal|last1=Dornbusch|first1=Uwe|title=Pleistocene and present day snowline rise in the Cordillera Ampato, Western Cordillera, Southern Peru (15° 15'-15° 45' S and 73° 30'-72° 15' W)|journal=Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie - Abhandlungen|date=24 June 2002|volume=225|issue=1|pages=103–126|doi=10.1127/njgpa/225/2002/103|ref=harv}} |
|||
* {{cite journal|last1=Engel|first1=Zbyněk|last2=Skrzypek|first2=Grzegorz|last3=Chuman|first3=Tomáš|last4=Šefrna|first4=Luděk|last5=Mihaljevič|first5=Martin|title=Climate in the Western Cordillera of the Central Andes over the last 4300 years|journal=Quaternary Science Reviews|date=September 2014|volume=99|pages=60–77|doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2014.06.019|ref=harv|bibcode=2014QSRv...99...60E }} |
|||
* {{Cite journal|last=Forget|first=Marie-Emilie|last2=Thouret|first2=Jean-Claude|last3=Kuentz|first3=Adèle|last4=Fontugne|first4=Michel|date=2008-07-01|title=Héritages glaciaires, périglaciaires et évolution récente : le cas du Nevado Coropuna (Andes centrales, sud du Pérou)|journal=Géomorphologie : Relief, Processus, Environnement|language=fr|volume=14|issue=vol. 14 – n° 2|pages=113–132|doi=10.4000/geomorphologie.6383|issn=1266-5304|ref=harv}} |
|||
* {{Cite journal|last=Fourtané|first=Nicole|date=2001|title=La montagne dans la littérature orale andine|journal=América. Cahiers du CRICCAL|volume=26|issue=1|pages=9–21|doi=10.3406/ameri.2001.1493|ref=harv}} |
|||
* {{Cite book|title=La vegetación de la región Arequipa, Perú|first=Antonio|last=Galán|ref=harv|date=2012|publisher=Impreso en el Taller Librería Junior|last2=Linares Perea|first2=Eliana|isbn=9786120009406|location=Arequipa, Perú|oclc=824610716}} |
|||
* {{Cite journal|last=García Zúñiga|first=Fredy F.|last2=Mariño Salazar|first2=Jersy|last3=Valdivia Humerez|first3=David|date=April 2018|title=Estudio preliminar de los depósitos de lahar del Complejo Volcánico Nevado Coropuna emplazados en el río Capiza: sectores de Andamayo, Jollpa y Tipan|url=http://repositorio.ingemmet.gob.pe/handle/ingemmet/1478|journal=Instituto Geológico, Minero y Metalúrgico – INGEMMET|ref=harv}} |
|||
* {{cite web|last1=Gómez|first1=Juan Carlos|last2=Macías|first2=José Luis|last3=Arce|first3=José Luis|last4=Sánchez-Nuñez|first4=Juan Manuel|last5=Siebe|first5=Claus|title=Caracterizacion geologica de los depositos de avalancha de escombros en Chuquibamba y Cotahuasi, region Arequipa|url=https://biblioserver.sernageomin.cl/opac/DataFiles/14127_pp_1024_1026.pdf|year=2012|publisher=[[SERNAGEOMIN]]|accessdate=25 February 2019|ref=harv|page=1025|language=es}} |
|||
* {{Cite web|url=http://sigrid.cenepred.gob.pe/sigridv3/documento/2237|publisher=Sistema de Información para la Gestión del Riesgo de Desastres|author=INGEMMET|year=2015|title=Monitoreo de los volcanes Coropuna, Ticsani y Tutupaca (Biblioteca SIGRID)|website=sigrid.cenepred.gob.pe|language=es|access-date=2019-01-21|ref=harv}} |
|||
* {{cite journal|last1=Kuentz|first1=Adèle|last2=Ledru|first2=Marie-Pierre|last3=Thouret|first3=Jean-Claude|title=Environmental changes in the highlands of the western Andean Cordillera, southern Peru, during the Holocene|journal=The Holocene|date=22 July 2011|volume=22|issue=11|pages=1215–1226|doi=10.1177/0959683611409772|ref=harv|language=en}} |
|||
* {{Cite journal|last=Kuentz|first=Adèle|last2=Mera|first2=Antonio Galán De|last3=Ledru|first3=Marie-Pierre|last4=Thouret|first4=Jean-Claude|date=2007|title=Phytogeographical data and modern pollen rain of the puna belt in southern Peru (Nevado Coropuna, Western Cordillera)|journal=Journal of Biogeography|language=en|volume=34|issue=10|pages=1762–1776|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2699.2007.01728.x|issn=1365-2699|ref=harv}} |
|||
* {{Cite journal|last=Kuentz|first=Adèle|last2=Thouret|first2=Jean-Claude|last3=Ledru|first3=Marie-Pierre|last4=Forget|first4=Marie-Émilie|date=2011-08-01|title=Sociétés andines et changements environnementaux depuis 4 000 ans dans la région du Nevado Coropuna (sud du Pérou)|url=http://journals.openedition.org/bifea/1388|journal=Bulletin de l'Institut Français d'Études Andines|language=es|issue=40 (2)|pages=235–257|doi=10.4000/bifea.1388|issn=0303-7495|ref=harv}} |
|||
* {{cite journal|last1=Lohman|first1=R. B.|last2=Pritchard|first2=M. E.|last3=Holtkamp|first3=S. G.|title=Earthquake swarms in South America|journal=Geophysical Journal International|date=1 October 2011|volume=187|issue=1|pages=128–146|doi=10.1111/j.1365-246X.2011.05137.x|ref=harv|language=en|issn=0956-540X|bibcode=2011GeoJI.187..128H}} |
|||
* {{Cite journal|last=Marinque|first=Nelida|last2=Marino|first2=Jersy|last3=Enderlin|first3=Ellyn M.|last4=Edwards|first4=Benjamin R.|last5=Kochtitzky|first5=William H.|date=April 2018|title=Improved estimates of glacier change rates at Nevado Coropuna Ice Cap, Peru|journal=Journal of Glaciology|language=en|volume=64|issue=244|pages=175–184|doi=10.1017/jog.2018.2|issn=0022-1430|bibcode=2018JGlac..64..175K|ref=harv}} |
|||
* {{Cite journal|last=Núñez Juárez|first=Segundo|last2=Steinmüller|first2=Klaus|date=1998|title=Hidrotermalismo en el sur del Perú: Sector Cailloma-Puquio - [Boletín D 19]|url=http://repositorio.ingemmet.gob.pe/handle/ingemmet/316|journal=Instituto Geológico, Minero y Metalúrgico - INGEMMET|ref=harv|issn=1607-5617}} |
|||
* {{Cite journal|last1=Palenque|first1=Jose Úbeda|last2=Niño de Guzmán|first2=Ronald Concha|last3=Choque|first3=Pool Vásquez|last4=Álvarez|first4=Pablo Masías|last5=Ayala|first5=Joshua Iparraguirre|year=2018|format=PDF|title=Prospección de edades 36Cl de la última máxima expansión de los glaciares y el comienzo de la deglaciación al noreste del complejo volcánico Nevado Coropuna (Región Arequipa)|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322498608|language=en|volume=8|pages=97–123|issn=0079-1091|access-date=2019-01-20|journal=Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica del Perú|via=ResearchGate|ref=harv}} |
|||
* {{Cite journal|last=Racoviteanu|first=Adina E.|last2=Manley|first2=William F.|last3=Arnaud|first3=Yves|last4=Williams|first4=Mark W.|date=2007-10-01|title=Evaluating digital elevation models for glaciologic applications: An example from Nevado Coropuna, Peruvian Andes|journal=Global and Planetary Change|series=Mass Balance of Andean Glaciers|volume=59|issue=1|pages=110–125|doi=10.1016/j.gloplacha.2006.11.036|issn=0921-8181|bibcode=2007GPC....59..110R|ref=harv}} |
|||
* {{Cite journal|last=Schotterer|first=U.|last2=Delachaux|first2=F.|last3=Ledru|first3=M.-P.|last4=Angelis|first4=M. De|last5=Patris|first5=N.|last6=Ginot|first6=P.|last7=Taupin|first7=J.-D.|last8=Moreno|first8=I.|last9=Herreros|first9=J.|date=2009-10-13|title=Environmental records from temperate glacier ice on Nevado Coropuna saddle, southern Peru|journal=Advances in Geosciences|language=English|volume=22|pages=27–34|doi=10.5194/adgeo-22-27-2009|ref=harv}} |
|||
* {{Cite journal|last=Silverio|first=W.|last2=Herold|first2=C.|last3=Peduzzi|first3=P.|date=2010-08-23|title=Assessing high altitude glacier thickness, volume and area changes using field, GIS and remote sensing techniques: the case of Nevado Coropuna (Peru)|journal=The Cryosphere|language=English|volume=4|issue=3|pages=313–323|doi=10.5194/tc-4-313-2010|issn=1994-0416|bibcode=2010TCry....4..313P|ref=harv}} |
|||
* {{cite journal|last1=Silverio|first1=Walter|last2=Jaquet|first2=Jean-Michel|date=5 April 2012|title=Multi-temporal and multi-source cartography of the glacial cover of Nevado Coropuna (Arequipa, Peru) between 1955 and 2003|journal=International Journal of Remote Sensing|volume=33|issue=18|pages=5876–5888|doi=10.1080/01431161.2012.676742|bibcode=2012IJRS...33.5876S|ref=harv}} |
|||
* {{Cite journal|journal=Revista de Glaciares y Ecosistemas de Montaña|volume=4|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330042461|trans-title=Impact of Climate Change on Mount Coropuna (Cordillera Ampato, Arequipa, Peru) and on Water Resources|first=Walter|last=Silverio|year=2018|title=Impacto del Cambio Climático en el Nevado Coropuna(Cordillera Ampato, Arequipa, Perú) y en el Recurso Hídrico|via=ResearchGate|language=en|access-date=2019-01-20|ref=harv}} |
|||
* {{cite web|last1=Sobczyk|first1=Maciej|title=Maucallacta, Peru: Information about the Work Carried out in the 2012 Season|url=http://www.archeo.uw.edu.pl/swarch/Swiatowit_X(LI)A2012_s215-221.pdf|website=Instytut Archeologii UW|publisher=University of Warsaw|accessdate=26 February 2019|ref=harv|date=2012}} |
|||
* {{cite web|first1=J.-C.|last1=THOURET|first2=E.|last2=JUVIGNE|first3=J.|last3=MARIÑO|first4=M.|last4=MOSCOL|first5=A.|last5=LEGELEY-PADOVANI|first6=I.|last6=LOUTSCH|first7=J.|last7=DAVILA|first8=S.|last8=LAMADON|first9=M.|last9=RIVERA|title=LATE PLEISTOCENE AND HOLOCENE TEPHRO-STRATIGRAPHYAND CHRONOLOGY IN SOUTHERN PERU|ref=harv|url=http://ovi.ingemmet.gob.pe/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Tefrocronologia-2002-Misti.pdf|accessdate=25 February 2019|date=2002}} |
|||
* {{cite journal|last1=Thouret|first1=Jean-Claude|last2=Gunnell|first2=Yanni|last3=Jicha|first3=Brian R.|last4=Paquette|first4=Jean-Louis|last5=Braucher|first5=Régis|title=Canyon incision chronology based on ignimbrite stratigraphy and cut-and-fill sediment sequences in SW Peru documents intermittent uplift of the western Central Andes|journal=Geomorphology|date=December 2017|volume=298|pages=1–19|doi=10.1016/j.geomorph.2017.09.013|ref=harv|bibcode=2017Geomo.298....1T}} |
|||
* {{cite journal|last1=Tosdal|first1=Richard M.|last2=Farrar|first2=Edward|last3=Clark|first3=Alan H.|title=K-Ar geochronology of the late cenozoic volcanic rocks of the Cordillera Occidental, southernmost Peru|journal=Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research|date=May 1981|volume=10|issue=1–3|pages=157–173|doi=10.1016/0377-0273(81)90060-3|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0377027381900603|ref=harv|bibcode=1981JVGR...10..157T}} |
|||
* {{cite conference|date=January 2012|conference=XVI Congreso Peruano de Geología|first=Jose|last=Úbeda|first2=David|last2=Palacios|first3=Lorenzo|last3=Vázquez-Selem|format=PDF|title=La evolución glaciovolcánica del Nevado Coropuna desde la transición del Pleistoceno al Holoceno|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235986166_La_evolucion_glaciovolcanica_del_Nevado_Coropuna_desde_la_transicion_del_Pleistoceno_al_Holoceno|website=ResearchGate|accessdate=20 January 2019|language=en|ref=harv}} |
|||
* {{Cite journal|last=Úbeda Palenque|first=José|date=2013|title=La investigación del registro glacial del cambio climático en el complejo volcánico nevado Coropuna (Arequipa - Perú)|url=http://repositorio.ingemmet.gob.pe/handle/ingemmet/1141|journal=Instituto Geológico, Minero y Metalúrgico – INGEMMET|ref=harv}} |
|||
* {{cite book|last1=Urton|first1=Gary|last2=Hagen|first2=Adriana von|title=Encyclopedia of the Incas|date=2015|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=9780759123632|ref=harv|language=ar}} |
|||
* {{Cite journal|last=Valenzuela Ortiz|first=Germán|last2=Núñez Juárez|first2=Segundo|date=2001|title=Mapa preliminar de amenaza volcánica potencial del volcán-nevado Coropuna - [Boletin C 25]|url=http://repositorio.ingemmet.gob.pe/handle/ingemmet/258|journal=Instituto Geológico, Minero y Metalúrgico - INGEMMET|issn=1560-9928|ref=harv}} |
|||
* {{Cite journal|last=Vela|first=Jesica|last2=Cáceres|first2=Jesús|last3=Calderón|first3=Javier|last4=Chijcheapaza|first4=Rolando|last5=Apaza|first5=Freddy|last6=Vilca|first6=Javier|last7=Masias|first7=Pablo|last8=Álvarez|first8=Yovana|last9=Miranda|first9=Rafael|date=May 2016|title=Evaluación del riesgo volcánico en el sur del Perú, situación de la vigilancia actual y requerimientos de monitoreo en el futuro|url=http://repositorio.igp.gob.pe/handle/IGP/797|language=es|ref=harv|journal=Repositorio Institucional - IGP}} |
|||
* {{Cite journal|last=Venturelli|first=G.|last2=Fragipane|first2=M.|last3=Weibel|first3=M.|last4=Antiga|first4=D.|date=1978-09-01|title=Trace element distribution in the cainozoic lavas of Nevado Coropuna and Andagua Valley, Central Andes of Southern Peru|journal=Bulletin Volcanologique|language=en|volume=41|issue=3|pages=213–228|doi=10.1007/BF02597224|issn=1432-0819|bibcode=1978BVol...41..213V|ref=harv}} |
|||
* {{cite journal|last1=Weibel|first1=M.|last2=Frangipane-Gysel|first2=M.|last3=Hunziker|first3=J.|title=Ein Beitrag zur Vulkanologie Süd-Perus|journal=Geologische Rundschau|date=1 February 1978|volume=67|issue=1|pages=243–252|doi=10.1007/BF01803264|ref=harv|language=de|issn=1432-1149|bibcode=1978GeoRu..67..243W}} |
|||
* {{cite journal|last1=Weide|first1=D. Marie|last2=Fritz|first2=Sherilyn C.|last3=Brinson|first3=Bruce E.|last4=Thompson|first4=Lonnie G.|last5=Billups|first5=W. Edward|title=Freshwater diatoms in the Sajama, Quelccaya, and Coropuna glaciers of the South American Andes|journal=Diatom Research|date=17 July 2017|volume=32|issue=2|pages=153–162|doi=10.1080/0269249x.2017.1335240|ref=harv}} |
|||
* {{cite journal|title=THE HIGHEST POINT IN PERÚ- A SHORT HISTORY ON THESURVEY OF HUASCARÁN|journal=Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica del Perú|via=[[ResearchGate]]|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/299611241|volume=98|year=2004|pages=97–101|first=James M.|last=WISE|ref=harv}} |
|||
* {{Cite book|chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303525248|chapter-format=PDF|website=ResearchGate|language=en|access-date=2019-01-20|chapter=Coropuna y Solimana: los oráculos de Condesuyos|date=January 2008|title=Adivinación y oráculos en el mundo andino antiguo|publisher=Fondo Editorial PUCP – IFEA, Lima|editor-first1=Marco|editor-last1=Curatola|editor-first2=Mariusz|editor-last2=Ziółkowski|pages=121–159|first=Mariusz|last=Ziółkowski|ref=harv}} |
|||
{{refend}} |
|||
== External links == |
|||
* {{Cite thesis|url=http://repositorio.lamolina.edu.pe/handle/UNALM/3321|title=Evolución de la cobertura glaciar del nevado Coropuna y su relación con el entorno climático|first=Ramos|last=Alonzo|first2=Robert|last2=Bartolome|year=2018}} |
|||
* {{cite book|last1=Biggar|first1=John|title=The Andes: A Guide for Climbers|date=2005|publisher=Andes|isbn=9780953608720|language=en}} |
|||
* {{Cite thesis|url=https://ddd.uab.cat/record/148707|title=La Circulación entre mundos en la tradición oral y ritual y las categorías del pensamiento quechua: hanansaya ccullana ch'isikata (Cusco, Perú)|last=Carlos Ríos|first=Eugenia|last2=Ventura i Oller|first2=Montserrat|date=2015|publisher=Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona|isbn=9788449057021}} |
|||
* {{cite journal|last1=Gysel-Frangipane|first1=Marisa|date=1976|title=Studio geochimico petrografico del Nevado Coropuna (Perù meridionale)|language=it|publisher=ETH Zurich|doi=10.3929/ethz-a-000116555}} |
|||
* {{Cite thesis|type=Master|url=https://eprints.ucm.es/cgi/export/23671|last=García Gutiérrez|first=Eduardo|year=2013|id=eprints:23671|title=Evolución Glaciar del cuadrante noroeste del Nevado Coropuna}} |
|||
* {{Cite thesis|type=master|last=Álvarez|first=Masías|last2=Jorge|first2=Pablo|date=2018-09-24|title=Características químicas e isotópicas del sistema hidrotermal del complejo volcánico nevado Coropuna, Arequipa-Perú|url=http://renati.sunedu.gob.pe/handle/sunedu/271480|journal=Universidad Nacional de San Agustín}} |
|||
* {{Cite journal|last=Pfoccori|first=Salcedo|last2=Solis|first2=Santiago|date=2018|title=Variación espaciotemporal de impurezas (particulas) absorbentes de luz y cenizas volcanicas en la superficie del Nevado Coropuna, Arequipa|url=http://repositorio.unsa.edu.pe/handle/UNSA/6731|journal=Universidad Nacional de San Agustín}} |
|||
* {{Cite thesis|last=Ubeda Palenque|first=José|location=Madrid|year=2011|id=eprints:12076|title=El impacto del cambio climático en los glaciares del complejo volcánico Nevado Coropuna, (Cordillera Occidental de los Andes Centrales)|url=https://eprints.ucm.es/12076/}} |
|||
* {{cite book|title=Dynamiques actuelle et holocine de la puna (andes siches du pirou).|publisher=OMNISCRIPTUM|isbn=978-613-1-52977-1|date=September 2010 }} |
|||
* {{Cite thesis|first=Campos Oset|last=Nestor|year=2012|id=eprints:19889|title=Glacier evolution in the South West slope of Nevado Coropuna (Cordillera Ampato, Perú)|type=Master|url=https://eprints.ucm.es/19889/}} |
|||
* {{Cite journal|last=Álvarez|first=Masías|last2=Jorge|first2=Pablo|date=2018|title=Características químicas e isotópicas del sistema hidrotermal del complejo volcánico nevado Coropuna, Arequipa-Perú|url=http://repositorio.unsa.edu.pe/handle/UNSA/6545|journal=Universidad Nacional de San Agustín}} |
|||
* {{Cite journal|last=Kochitzky|first=William|date=2016-05-22|title=Short-term Climate Cycles, Recent Climate Changes, and Volcano-Ice Hazards: Nevado Coropuna, Arequipa, Peru|url=https://scholar.dickinson.edu/student_honors/289|journal=Student Honors Theses by Year}} |
|||
* {{Cite journal|last=Duchesnes|first=Frédéric|date=2009-09-30|title=L'ajustement indien. Les villages du Coropuna(Arequipa, Pérou) au 18e siècle. Thèse de doctorat en Histoire soutenue à l'Université de Paris III, Sorbonne Nouvelle, le 08 décembre 2008. Directrice de la thèse Thérèse Bouysse-Cassagne. Membres du Jury : Bernard Vincent, Carmen Bernand, Pierre Ragon|url=http://journals.openedition.org/nuevomundo/57178|journal=Nuevo Mundo Mundos Nuevos. Nouveaux Mondes Mondes Nouveaux - Novo Mundo Mundos Novos - New World New Worlds|language=fr|doi=10.4000/nuevomundo.57178|issn=1626-0252}} |
|||
* {{Cite thesis|url=http://www.documentation.ird.fr/hor/fdi:010051376|format=PDF|first=Herreros|last=Julien|year=2010|title=Interprétations sur le dernier siècle du profil isotopique de l'eau dans deux carottes de glace andines (Coropuna, Pérou, 15°S et San Valentin, Chili, 46°S)publisher=Université de Montpellier}} |
|||
* {{Cite thesis|last=García Gutiérrez|first=Eduardo|year=2013|id=eprints:23671|chapter=Evolución glaciar, Altitud de la Línea de Equilibrio Glaciar, Coropuna, Perú, Geomorfología glaciar|title=Evolución Glaciar del cuadrante noroeste del Nevado Coropuna|url=https://eprints.ucm.es/23671/}} |
|||
Latest revision as of 20:30, 24 March 2019
Redirect to: