Recreational drug use in Kenya

Drug and alcohol abuse is an issue that impacts men, women, and children from both rural and urban environments in Kenya on a physical and mental level. The drugs reported to have been used are cigarettes, tobacco, kuber, shisha, packaged alcohol, chang'aa, hashish, bhang, cocaine, heroin, khat, inhalants, prescription drugs (sedatives or sleeping pills, morphine, codeine, pethidine), and synthetic drugs (amphetamine, hallucinogens, mandrax). Drug and alcohol abuse in Kenya can be traced to several causes which include institutionalized homophobia and social stigma, poor parenting and poverty, and peer pressure. Some of the major effects are violence, lack of awareness of pregnancies, greater risk of contracting HIV, chemical dependence, and social stigma.

History

The prevalence of drug and alcohol use have changed in tandem with historical developments. In precolonial times, for example, Kenyan society allowed for drug use and alcohol consumption albeit only during cultural activities. The right to use drugs and consume alcohol was exclusively enjoyed by male elders within Kenyan communities. Youth and women, on the other hand, were barred from such activities. Before the advent of colonialism, Kenyans consumed alcoholic drinks such as chang'aa and toivo. They also chewed, smoked, or inhaled tobacco leaves, khat leaves, and marijuana leaves.

With the growth in trade from colonialism, access to alcohol grew. Another effect of colonialism on Kenyan society was that the concept of a social community was diminished. Kenyans accepted the new economic opportunities birthed by colonialism and recognized the importance of the individual. As the traditional family structure weakened, the informal limits upon the usage of drugs and alcohol were lessened. Contrary to the past traditions, individuals of various demographics now consume alcohol and use drugs which can lead to abuse of these substances.

Source of Drugs

Kenya is classified as a weak but functioning state, implying that the state lacks a monopoly on force. This creates room for informal actors who are able to conduct their illicit affairs with little fear of state intervention. Other conditions such as severe governmental corruption , weakened institutions, and stable financial and transportation services make Kenya an optimal destination and transit point for drug traffickers. More specifically, a report by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) stated that there were significant quantities of heroin being seized in areas along the east coast of Africa. It appeared that "nearly all of the heroin entering Eastern Africa comes from Afghanistan."

The sea is often the travel path chosen by traffickers, and so areas that are most affected by drug trafficking are found on the coast such as Mombasa, Kenya, although there have been instances of drug trafficking occurring through international airports.

Causes

Institutionalized Homophobia and Social Stigma

Kenya is conservative in its view of members of the LGBTQ community and has criminalized sexual activity which is non-heterosexual. Under Section 162 of the Kenyan Penal Code, any person "who has carnal knowledge of any person against the order of nature is guilty of a felony and liable to imprisonment for fourteen years." Section 165 criminalizes homosexual acts, decreeing that any male who "commits any act of gross indecency with another male person...is guilty of a felony and liable to imprisonment for five years."

In recent years, LGBTQ members in Kenya have attempted to push for legislation to decriminalize these types of sexual activity.

Given the legal institutionalization of homophobia, certain demographics suffer harassment from state officials. One demographic that engages in these activities is men who have sex with men (MSM). A report conducted by the Kenya National Commission on Human Rights found that due to the criminalisation of same-sex activities, MSMs are frequently harassed, asked for bribes, and arrested under false charges by officers and state officials.

MSMs also must deal with the reactions of family and society. Hesitant of being excluded, many choose to keep their sexual orientation a secret.

A 2017 study found that among the MSM in Kisumu, Kenya, "the prevalence of severe depressive symptoms is substantially higher (11.4%) than the 4% estimated for the general Kenyan population." Among the study's participants, "50.1% reported harmful alcohol abuse" and "23.8% reported moderate substance abuse." Given the conservative social environment, MSM used alcohol and illicit substances as a means of coping. It may also have been used as a solution to the depressive mental conditions.

Poor Parenting and Poverty

A study conducted in 2016 examined the role of poor parenting within nine villages in Kibera, a large slum in Kenya, and its effects on the prevalence of substance or alcohol abuse among youth from the area. With regards to the socioeconomic makeup of the slum's inhabitants, may are poor, earning less than a dollar a day. Researchers noted that a majority of parents grew up within the slum themselves and were not exposed to proper parenting that was passed down from the previous generation. Poor parenting comes in the form of disconnection from the child, continuance of poor habits (using drugs), and overall negligence.

Through qualitative interviews with inhabitants of the slum, researchers came to the conclusion that many of the slum's adults were single-parents who were primarily women fixated on earning income by whatever means possible. With financial security as a primary objective, many parents neglected their children. Many were also unemployed and unable to provide reliable care and services. As a result, children, without proper parental supervision, become more prone to engaging in alcohol or substance abuse on their own.

Peer pressure

Peer pressure is a major factor contributing towards drug abuse. One study published in the Bangladesh e-Journal of Sociology found that there was a significant risk of drug abuse among female Kenyan youth in a town called Mikindu, with 24.14% of participants having begun their drug usage due to peer pressure. Users had been encouraged to take drugs for the apparent benefits that one could feel from taking these drugs. Some female youth began taking drugs due to influence from their spouses. Some would take drugs under the premise that they would lead to strength and courage, allowing for them to face those who had wronged them in the past.

Effects

Violence

One study examined drug use in secondary public schools in Nairobi county in 2015. The research indicates that 41.3% of students reported having witnessed students bullying others while under the influence of drugs. Based on the teachers' reports, they claimed to have witnessed students using alcohol, tobacco, narcotics, cannabis, hallucinogens, etc. Additionally, 42.1% of respondents at boys schools reported having a classmate who abuses drugs, whereas 14.4% of respondents at girls schools said the same. In the past, there have been instances of students physically assaulting teachers and fellow students, engaging in sexual violence such as rape, and committed criminal acts such as stealing.

Drugs, alongside alcohol, affect Kenyan youth living in slums. A study published by the Journal of Youth Studies found that under the influence of these substances, male youth were more likely to force others into sexual intercourse due to substance-induced aggression, while girls were more likely to be victims. Focus group discussions with female victims showed that women believed "… it is not their wish but it is those things [alcohol and drugs] that they use," which highlights the strong influence of such substances on the actions of these male youth.

Violence occurs within the domestic sphere as well. The 2012 Report compiled by the National Authority for the Campaign Against Alcohol and Drug Abuse found that those who used alcohol and bhang were more likely to exhibit violence behavior towards family members. For example, "32.4% of alcohol and 28.6 % of bhang users reported being violent to a spouse/partner or a family member."

Lack of Awareness of Pregnancies

Kenyan women who actively engage in drug injecting experience several complications with regards to their pregnancies. One is that drug-injecting can lead to amenorrhea, resulting in women being unaware that they are even pregnant until further along. This lack of awareness resulted in pregnant women failing to follow certain practices and habits to ensure the health of their children.

Drug use also creates a dilemma for women as they must weigh the choices of either searching for more drugs or traveling to clinics to receive better care. Women under the influence of drugs feel a need to satisfy their cravings, viewing them as a priority before attending medical appointments. They also consider the possibility that staying at a clinic for a long duration due to long queues can lead to withdrawal symptoms, leading to a painful and stressful experience that can be avoided.

For the time being, there are few health providers who fully understand how to treat women who have injected drugs.

Greater Risk of HIV

One of the more long-term effects brought about by drug use in Kenya is the transmission of HIV among the populace. What typically occurs is that under the effects of drugs, those who engage in sexual activities are more likely to make rash and impulsive decisions. Research on women's drug usage in coastal cities of Mombasa and Kilifi found that the sharing of needles among drug users was common. However, despite understanding the risks attached to such behavior, participants continued to share needles.

Another way in which the pursuit and use of drugs spreads HIV is through transactional relationships. In terms of the makeup of study participants, "53% were single and 27% were cohabiting," leading to conditions by which women exchanged sex for "drugs, protection from the police, and accommodation." A search for drugs, in particular, poses certain health risks, as sexual intercourse with strangers serves to heighten the risk of contracting HIV. Similarly, sex workers are susceptible to contracting HIV due to drug use during work.

Chemical Dependence

Chemical dependence refers to various indicators such as "craving for the substance, needing the substance first thing in the morning; concern by someone close to the respondent or a doctor about the person's drug consumption habits." The report indicated that between the age range from 15 to 65, tobacco was the most addictive substance with 62.3% of users expressing a craving for it. 21%, 44%, and 34.4% of alcohol, bhang, and miraa, respectively, expressed similar cravings.

Social Stigma

A report published by the Harm Reduction Journal examined the impact of stigma faced by women on the Kenyan Coast who injected drugs. Based on the information collected from interviews with study participants who had injected drugs, the researchers formed several conclusions with regards to stigma. The types of stigma included:

• Self-Stigmatization: Participants reported internal feelings of shame and low self-esteem due to having injected drugs coupled with a lack of sense of worth. They also associated their actions with a negative label known as "teja" which means "an injecting drug user."
• External Stigmatization: Participants also reported feeling excluded by those around them. Some noted that their families expressed apathy towards them for having used drugs. There were also instances in which the stigma attached to drug use led to drug users being perceived as petty criminals. The role of gender also arose as the stigma of drug use among women was accentuated by the fact that traditionally, men were drug users.

According to the study, the stigma of drug use can impede women's access to healthcare. Some women shared their concerns that being identified as a drug user would influence the quality of their interactions with health care workers, as certain workers would question the reason and method by which they should provide for the drug users. Some also opted to hide their identities as a means of receiving proper care.

Local Efforts

The local community can also play a role in regulating the consumption of drugs and alcohol. According to interviews with members of Kuikui, Baringo North, there is a general air of respect and concern within the community. If, for example, a youth is caught drinking alcohol or using drugs, the word of a village elder can be enough for the youth to cease his or her behavior. The family can also play a role in guiding their relatives or immediate family members away from alcohol and drugs.

Government Response

Aware of the negative effects of drug and alcohol abuse, the Kenyan government has made an active effort in recent years towards informing and preventing the populace from abusing these substances through policy. The Tobacco Control Act of 2007 was designed to protect individuals from disease and death caused by tobacco. It also aimed to better inform consumers on the risks associated with smoking, while preventing those under the age of 18 from purchasing tobacco products. In 2010, The Alcoholic Drinks Control Act was passed with the aim of protecting "the health of individuals  by providing a legal framework to control sale, production & consumption of alcoholic drinks." It also sought to better educate the general populace of the risks of alcohol consumption. These efforts to regulate the hours of operation for bars and prohibit the sale of alcohol to individuals under 18 years of age. These rules, however, are frequently broken as customers will pay bribes or bar owners will simply not adhere to the rules.

The Kenyan government has also cooperated with UNODC and the United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) in its effort to provide proper treatment to those who inect drugs. In Mombasa, the Kenyan government had begun a process of decentralizing drug dependence treatment to 12 outpatient centers. UNODC also pledged to provide training for "700 health professionals and civil society workers in HIV services" for those who inject drugs.

See also

• Cannabis in Kenya

External links

• Allen, Karen (9 May 2006). "Traffickers' drugs haven in Kenya". Mombasa: BBC News. Retrieved 16 February 2010.