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[[File:Common eastern firefly (Photinus pyralis) in USA.webm|thumb|Common eastern firefly (''Photinus pyralis'')]]
[[File:Common eastern firefly (Photinus pyralis) in USA.webm|thumb|Common eastern firefly (''Photinus pyralis'')]]


The ''Photuris'' female may also lure a ''Photinus pyralis'' to be eaten to obtain spider-repellent steroids called "[[Lucibufagin|lucibufagins]]".<ref>Roger Segelken [http://www.news.cornell.edu/chronicle/97/9.4.97/firefly.html Lured and liquidated, gullible male fireflies supply 'femmes fatales' with a lifesaving chemical] ''[[Cornell Chronicle]]'' September 1, 1997. Retrieved November 22, 2012.</ref> In males the light organ covers the entire ventral surface of the three most posterior segments and in females it only covers a portion of the third posterior segment.<ref name="Mast">Mast, S.O. 1912. Behaviour of fire-flies (Photinus pyralis) with special references to the problem of orientation. 256-272</ref> These fireflies are most noticeable around twilight, in the early part of the evening and hover close to the ground.<ref name="Rau">Rau, P. 1932. Rhythmic periodicity and synchronous flashing in the firefly, Photinus pyralis, with notes on Photurus pennsylvacicus. Ecological Society of America, 13:7-11</ref> The species' common name refers to the characteristic flight of the male, which flies in a J-shaped trajectory, lighting on the upswing.<ref name="washpo1">{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/graphic/2009/07/11/GR2009071103099.html?sid=ST2009071103102|title=How These Beetles Create Light|last=Maloney|first=Brenna|author2=Smallwood, James|date=July 10, 2009|work=[[The Washington Post]]|accessdate=July 19, 2009}}</ref> During flight, the J-shaped flight pattern is used in combination with patrolling flash patterns while seeking a mate.<ref name="Case">{{cite journal | last1 = Case | first1 = J.F. | year = 2004 | title = Flight studies on photic communication by the firefly Photinus pyralis | url = | journal = Integrative and Comparative Biology | volume = 44 | issue = | pages = 250–258 }}</ref> Their flashes are stimulated by light conditions, not by rhythmic impulses as originally thought.<ref name="Rau"/>
The ''Photuris'' female may also lure a ''Photinus pyralis'' to be eaten to obtain spider-repellent steroids called "[[Lucibufagin|lucibufagins]]".<ref>Roger Segelken [http://www.news.cornell.edu/chronicle/97/9.4.97/firefly.html Lured and liquidated, gullible male fireflies supply 'femmes fatales' with a lifesaving chemical] ''[[Cornell Chronicle]]'' September 1, 1997. Retrieved November 22, 2012.</ref> In males the light organ covers the entire ventral surface of the three most posterior segments and in females it only covers a portion of the third posterior segment.<ref name="Mast">Mast, S.O. 1912. Behaviour of fire-flies (Photinus pyralis) with special references to the problem of orientation. 256-272</ref> These fireflies are most noticeable around twilight, in the early part of the evening and hover close to the ground.<ref name="Rau">Rau, P. 1932. Rhythmic periodicity and synchronous flashing in the firefly, Photinus pyralis, with notes on Photurus pennsylvacicus. Ecological Society of America, 13:7-11</ref> The species' common name refers to the characteristic flight of the male, which flies in a J-shaped trajectory, lighting on the upswing.<ref name="washpo1">{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/graphic/2009/07/11/GR2009071103099.html?sid=ST2009071103102|title=How These Beetles Create Light|last=Maloney|first=Brenna|author2=Smallwood, James|date=July 10, 2009|work=[[The Washington Post]]|accessdate=July 19, 2009}}</ref> During flight, the J-shaped flight pattern is used in combination with patrolling flash patterns while seeking a mate.<ref name="Case">{{cite journal | last1 = Case | first1 = J.F. | year = 2004 | title = Flight studies on photic communication by the firefly Photinus pyralis | url = | journal = Integrative and Comparative Biology | volume = 44 | issue = | pages = 250–258 | doi = 10.1093/icb/44.3.250 }}</ref> Their flashes are stimulated by light conditions, not by rhythmic impulses as originally thought.<ref name="Rau"/>


The genome of ''Photinus pyralis'' was sequenced in 2018.<ref name="FallonLower2018">{{cite journal|last1=Fallon|first1=Timothy R|last2=Lower|first2=Sarah E|last3=Chang|first3=Ching-Ho|last4=Bessho-Uehara|first4=Manabu|last5=Martin|first5=Gavin J|last6=Bewick|first6=Adam J|last7=Behringer|first7=Megan|last8=Debat|first8=Humberto J|last9=Wong|first9=Isaac|last10=Day|first10=John C|last11=Suvorov|first11=Anton|last12=Silva|first12=Christian J|last13=Stanger-Hall|first13=Kathrin F|last14=Hall|first14=David W|last15=Schmitz|first15=Robert J|last16=Nelson|first16=David R|last17=Lewis|first17=Sara M|last18=Shigenobu|first18=Shuji|last19=Bybee|first19=Seth M|last20=Larracuente|first20=Amanda M|last21=Oba|first21=Yuichi|last22=Weng|first22=Jing-Ke|title=Firefly genomes illuminate parallel origins of bioluminescence in beetles|journal=eLife|volume=7|year=2018|issn=2050-084X|doi=10.7554/eLife.36495|pmid=30324905|pmc=6191289}}</ref>
The genome of ''Photinus pyralis'' was sequenced in 2018.<ref name="FallonLower2018">{{cite journal|last1=Fallon|first1=Timothy R|last2=Lower|first2=Sarah E|last3=Chang|first3=Ching-Ho|last4=Bessho-Uehara|first4=Manabu|last5=Martin|first5=Gavin J|last6=Bewick|first6=Adam J|last7=Behringer|first7=Megan|last8=Debat|first8=Humberto J|last9=Wong|first9=Isaac|last10=Day|first10=John C|last11=Suvorov|first11=Anton|last12=Silva|first12=Christian J|last13=Stanger-Hall|first13=Kathrin F|last14=Hall|first14=David W|last15=Schmitz|first15=Robert J|last16=Nelson|first16=David R|last17=Lewis|first17=Sara M|last18=Shigenobu|first18=Shuji|last19=Bybee|first19=Seth M|last20=Larracuente|first20=Amanda M|last21=Oba|first21=Yuichi|last22=Weng|first22=Jing-Ke|title=Firefly genomes illuminate parallel origins of bioluminescence in beetles|journal=eLife|volume=7|year=2018|issn=2050-084X|doi=10.7554/eLife.36495|pmid=30324905|pmc=6191289}}</ref>
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==Light production==
==Light production==
Males of ''Photinus pyralis'' locate females by a series of light flashes, to which females respond with a coded delay flash.
Males of ''Photinus pyralis'' locate females by a series of light flashes, to which females respond with a coded delay flash.
The light organ of ''P. pyralis'' is composed of two layers; a layer of refractile cells on the [[Dorsal (anatomy)|dorsal]] side and a photic layer with light-producing cells on the [[ventral]] side.<ref name="Beams and Anderson">Beams, H.W. and Anderson, E. 1955. Light and electron microscope studies on the light organ of the firefly (''Photinus pyralis''). The Biological Bulletin, 375-393</ref> The light organ (specifically the photogenic layer) is supplied with numerous tracheal branches, which are thought to provide the required oxygen for light production.<ref name="Beams and Anderson"/> The light-producing enzyme is [[luciferase]], and is found within cells of the lantern.<ref name="Keller">{{cite journal | last1 = Keller | first1 = G.A. | last2 = Gould | first2 = S. | last3 = Deluca | first3 = M. | last4 = Subramani | first4 = S. | year = 1987 | title = Firefly luciferase is targeted to peroxisomes in mammalian cells | url = | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | volume = 84 | issue = | pages = 3264–3268 }}</ref> Luciferases require oxygen, [[luciferin]] and [[adenosine triphosphate]] (ATP) to catalyze a chemical reaction that produces [[bioluminescence]] in these insects.<ref>[http://www.photobiolgy.info/Branchini.htm] {{Dead link|date=January 2015}}</ref> It has been shown that the glow is not controlled by the tracheal end cells (which were thought to contain valves) nor by central nerve impulses through studies involving low oxygen conditions.<ref name="Hastings">Hastings, J.W. and Buck, J. 1965. The firefly pseudoflash in relation to photogenic control. The Biological Bulletin, 101-113</ref> Pupae of these beetles have different light organs than the adult. They do not have the characteristic tracheal end cells of the flashing adults, and whereas the adults emit bright flashes, pupae emit low intensity glowing.<ref name="Hastings"/>
The light organ of ''P. pyralis'' is composed of two layers; a layer of refractile cells on the [[Dorsal (anatomy)|dorsal]] side and a photic layer with light-producing cells on the [[ventral]] side.<ref name="Beams and Anderson">Beams, H.W. and Anderson, E. 1955. Light and electron microscope studies on the light organ of the firefly (''Photinus pyralis''). The Biological Bulletin, 375-393</ref> The light organ (specifically the photogenic layer) is supplied with numerous tracheal branches, which are thought to provide the required oxygen for light production.<ref name="Beams and Anderson"/> The light-producing enzyme is [[luciferase]], and is found within cells of the lantern.<ref name="Keller">{{cite journal | last1 = Keller | first1 = G.A. | last2 = Gould | first2 = S. | last3 = Deluca | first3 = M. | last4 = Subramani | first4 = S. | year = 1987 | title = Firefly luciferase is targeted to peroxisomes in mammalian cells | url = | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | volume = 84 | issue = | pages = 3264–3268 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.84.10.3264 }}</ref> Luciferases require oxygen, [[luciferin]] and [[adenosine triphosphate]] (ATP) to catalyze a chemical reaction that produces [[bioluminescence]] in these insects.<ref>[http://www.photobiolgy.info/Branchini.htm] {{Dead link|date=January 2015}}</ref> It has been shown that the glow is not controlled by the tracheal end cells (which were thought to contain valves) nor by central nerve impulses through studies involving low oxygen conditions.<ref name="Hastings">Hastings, J.W. and Buck, J. 1965. The firefly pseudoflash in relation to photogenic control. The Biological Bulletin, 101-113</ref> Pupae of these beetles have different light organs than the adult. They do not have the characteristic tracheal end cells of the flashing adults, and whereas the adults emit bright flashes, pupae emit low intensity glowing.<ref name="Hastings"/>


==Defense==
==Defense==
Beetles from the family [[Lampyridae]] have been known to use certain defenses such as unpleasant odour and the excretion of a sticky substance to avoid predation.<ref name="Williams">{{cite journal | last1 = Williams | first1 = F.X. | year = 1917 | title = Notes on the life-history of some North American Lampryridae | url = | journal = Journal of the New York Entomology Society | volume = 25 | issue = | pages = 11–33 }}</ref> Excretion of unpleasant fluids from the areas along the [[elytra]] and [[pronotum]] is the result of tactile stimulation and has been referred to as reflexive bleeding.<ref name="Blum and Sannasi">{{cite journal | last1 = Blum | first1 = M. | last2 = Sannasi | first2 = A. | year = 1973 | title = Reflex bleeding in the lampyrid Photinus pyralis: defensive function | url = | journal = Journal of Insect Physiology | volume = 20 | issue = | pages = 451–660 }}</ref> This [[reflex bleeding]] is a defensive function of ''P.pyralis'', as it can cause certain predators to become entangled in the sticky substance (such as ants) or cause revulsion in others upon predation.<ref name="Blum and Sannasi" /> The excretion contains [[lucibufagin]]s, steroids found in ''P. pyralis'' that render them distasteful to certain bird predators.<ref name="Meinwald">{{cite journal | last1 = Meinwald | first1 = J. | last2 = Wiemer | first2 = D.F. | last3 = Eisner | first3 = T. | year = 1979 | title = Lucibufagins. 2. Esters of 12-Oxo-2p,5p, 1 1 a-trihydroxybufalin, the major defensive steroids of the Firefly Photinus pyralis (Coleoptera: Lampyridae) | url = | journal = Journal of the American Chemical Society | volume = 11 | issue = | pages = 3055–3060 }}</ref> Whereas adult flashing is used in mate signaling, pupae glow is thought to be an [[aposematic]] display for nocturnal predators.<ref name="Underwood">{{cite journal | last1 = Underwood | first1 = T.J. | last2 = Tallamy | first2 = D.W. | last3 = Pesek | first3 = J.D. | year = 1997 | title = Bioluminescebce in firefly larvae: a test of the aposematic display hypothesis (Coleoptera: Lampyridae) | url = | journal = Journal of Insect Behaviour | volume = 10 | issue = | pages = 365–370 }}</ref>
Beetles from the family [[Lampyridae]] have been known to use certain defenses such as unpleasant odour and the excretion of a sticky substance to avoid predation.<ref name="Williams">{{cite journal | last1 = Williams | first1 = F.X. | year = 1917 | title = Notes on the life-history of some North American Lampryridae | url = | journal = Journal of the New York Entomology Society | volume = 25 | issue = | pages = 11–33 }}</ref> Excretion of unpleasant fluids from the areas along the [[elytra]] and [[pronotum]] is the result of tactile stimulation and has been referred to as reflexive bleeding.<ref name="Blum and Sannasi">{{cite journal | last1 = Blum | first1 = M. | last2 = Sannasi | first2 = A. | year = 1973 | title = Reflex bleeding in the lampyrid Photinus pyralis: defensive function | url = | journal = Journal of Insect Physiology | volume = 20 | issue = | pages = 451–660 | doi = 10.1016/0022-1910(74)90153-x }}</ref> This [[reflex bleeding]] is a defensive function of ''P.pyralis'', as it can cause certain predators to become entangled in the sticky substance (such as ants) or cause revulsion in others upon predation.<ref name="Blum and Sannasi" /> The excretion contains [[lucibufagin]]s, steroids found in ''P. pyralis'' that render them distasteful to certain bird predators.<ref name="Meinwald">{{cite journal | last1 = Meinwald | first1 = J. | last2 = Wiemer | first2 = D.F. | last3 = Eisner | first3 = T. | year = 1979 | title = Lucibufagins. 2. Esters of 12-Oxo-2p,5p, 1 1 a-trihydroxybufalin, the major defensive steroids of the Firefly Photinus pyralis (Coleoptera: Lampyridae) | url = | journal = Journal of the American Chemical Society | volume = 11 | issue = | pages = 3055–3060 }}</ref> Whereas adult flashing is used in mate signaling, pupae glow is thought to be an [[aposematic]] display for nocturnal predators.<ref name="Underwood">{{cite journal | last1 = Underwood | first1 = T.J. | last2 = Tallamy | first2 = D.W. | last3 = Pesek | first3 = J.D. | year = 1997 | title = Bioluminescebce in firefly larvae: a test of the aposematic display hypothesis (Coleoptera: Lampyridae) | url = | journal = Journal of Insect Behaviour | volume = 10 | issue = | pages = 365–370 | doi = 10.1007/bf02765604 }}</ref>


In relation, males of the ''Photinus'' species are the prey for females of a different genus, ''[[Photuris]]''. ''Photuris'' females actually mimic the effects of the Photinus males light-signaling patterns, and by doing this the females lure in the Photinus males. The males naturally produce the steroid lucibufagin, and the reason that the females prey on these males is to obtain this steroid. Once the females prey on the ''Photinus'' males, the females gain the steroid lucibufagin to use to their defense against [[jumping spider]]s. A study was performed where the ''Photuris'' females were collected from nature and forced to reflex bleed which contains the steroid lucibufagin. It was found that when the females were forced to reflex bleed, the samples taken from each female had different amounts of the steroid in each sample. So after experiments were brought out to see which females the jumping spiders would eat it was decided that the jumping spiders were more likely to eat the females with less lucibufagin inside their bodies and the females with more were constantly rejected by the spiders therefore protecting themselves from predation.<ref name="Eisner">{{cite journal|author=Eisner, T.|year=1997|title=Firefly "femmes fatales" acquire defensive steroids (lucibufagins) from their firefly prey|journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.]]|volume=94|issue=18 |pages=9723–9728|doi=10.1073/pnas.94.18.9723|pmid=9275191|pmc=23257}}</ref>
In relation, males of the ''Photinus'' species are the prey for females of a different genus, ''[[Photuris]]''. ''Photuris'' females actually mimic the effects of the Photinus males light-signaling patterns, and by doing this the females lure in the Photinus males. The males naturally produce the steroid lucibufagin, and the reason that the females prey on these males is to obtain this steroid. Once the females prey on the ''Photinus'' males, the females gain the steroid lucibufagin to use to their defense against [[jumping spider]]s. A study was performed where the ''Photuris'' females were collected from nature and forced to reflex bleed which contains the steroid lucibufagin. It was found that when the females were forced to reflex bleed, the samples taken from each female had different amounts of the steroid in each sample. So after experiments were brought out to see which females the jumping spiders would eat it was decided that the jumping spiders were more likely to eat the females with less lucibufagin inside their bodies and the females with more were constantly rejected by the spiders therefore protecting themselves from predation.<ref name="Eisner">{{cite journal|author=Eisner, T.|year=1997|title=Firefly "femmes fatales" acquire defensive steroids (lucibufagins) from their firefly prey|journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.]]|volume=94|issue=18 |pages=9723–9728|doi=10.1073/pnas.94.18.9723|pmid=9275191|pmc=23257}}</ref>


==Mating==
==Mating==
Males are the first to start the series of patrolling flashes needed to locate and mate with a female. Males will actively fly while flashing, whereas females are sedentary.<ref name="Lloyd">Lloyd, J.E. 1966. Studies on the flash communication system in Photinus fireflies. Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor</ref> They will flash every 6 seconds and wait for a responding flash from the female, which comes after a 1-2 second delay <ref name="Case"/> It has been shown that females only respond to their [[conspecific]] males; identifying them by the color of their yellow bioluminescent flash, in combination with the temporal patterning, duration and intensity of the male flash.<ref name="Lall and Worthy">{{cite journal | last1 = Lall | first1 = A.B | last2 = Worthy | first2 = K.M. | year = 2000 | title = Action spectra of the female's response in the firefly Photinus pyralis (Coleoptera: Lampyridae): evidence for an achromatic detection of the bioluminescent optical signal | url = | journal = Journal of Insect Physiology | volume = 46 | issue = | pages = 965–968 }}</ref> Females will twist their abdomen towards the males flash, presenting their own flash toward the male. Males can be observed flying in a nearly vertical orientation; their antennae held forward and stiff while their legs are held toward the body during patrolling.<ref name="Case"/> They also show an obvious gaze shift towards the last female flash, and continue towards it until the female firefly flashes again.<ref name="Case"/> The flashes continue until the male reaches the female. Males congregate in large masses and it is most likely that more than one will find the same female; in this case male ''P. pyralis'' display aggression towards one another while not in flight.<ref name="Vencl">{{cite journal | last1 = Vencl | first1 = F.V. | year = 2004 | title = Allometry and proximate mechanisms of sexual selection in Photinus fireflies, and some other beetles | url = | journal = Integrative and Comparative Biology | volume = 44 | issue = | pages = 242–249 }}</ref>
Males are the first to start the series of patrolling flashes needed to locate and mate with a female. Males will actively fly while flashing, whereas females are sedentary.<ref name="Lloyd">Lloyd, J.E. 1966. Studies on the flash communication system in Photinus fireflies. Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor</ref> They will flash every 6 seconds and wait for a responding flash from the female, which comes after a 1-2 second delay <ref name="Case"/> It has been shown that females only respond to their [[conspecific]] males; identifying them by the color of their yellow bioluminescent flash, in combination with the temporal patterning, duration and intensity of the male flash.<ref name="Lall and Worthy">{{cite journal | last1 = Lall | first1 = A.B | last2 = Worthy | first2 = K.M. | year = 2000 | title = Action spectra of the female's response in the firefly Photinus pyralis (Coleoptera: Lampyridae): evidence for an achromatic detection of the bioluminescent optical signal | url = | journal = Journal of Insect Physiology | volume = 46 | issue = | pages = 965–968 | doi = 10.1016/s0022-1910(99)00206-1 }}</ref> Females will twist their abdomen towards the males flash, presenting their own flash toward the male. Males can be observed flying in a nearly vertical orientation; their antennae held forward and stiff while their legs are held toward the body during patrolling.<ref name="Case"/> They also show an obvious gaze shift towards the last female flash, and continue towards it until the female firefly flashes again.<ref name="Case"/> The flashes continue until the male reaches the female. Males congregate in large masses and it is most likely that more than one will find the same female; in this case male ''P. pyralis'' display aggression towards one another while not in flight.<ref name="Vencl">{{cite journal | last1 = Vencl | first1 = F.V. | year = 2004 | title = Allometry and proximate mechanisms of sexual selection in Photinus fireflies, and some other beetles | url = | journal = Integrative and Comparative Biology | volume = 44 | issue = | pages = 242–249 | doi = 10.1093/icb/44.3.242 }}</ref>


During the “aggression” stage, males with smaller elytra and smaller lanterns are favored; whereas during the signaling phase, males with longer elytra and bigger lanterns are favoured.<ref name="Vencl"/> Males with larger lanterns are favored in signaling phases of courtship because their broadcasting flashes can be seen by females who are further away, it is also suggested that due to their longer elytra these males may also have an advantage of finding the females faster.<ref name="Vencl2">{{cite journal | last1 = Vencl | first1 = F.V. | last2 = Carlson | first2 = D. | year = 1998 | title = Proximate mechanisms of sexual selection in the firefly Photinus pryalis (Coleoptera: Lampyridae) | url = | journal = Journal of Insect behaviour | volume = 11 | issue = | pages = 191–207 }}</ref>
During the “aggression” stage, males with smaller elytra and smaller lanterns are favored; whereas during the signaling phase, males with longer elytra and bigger lanterns are favoured.<ref name="Vencl"/> Males with larger lanterns are favored in signaling phases of courtship because their broadcasting flashes can be seen by females who are further away, it is also suggested that due to their longer elytra these males may also have an advantage of finding the females faster.<ref name="Vencl2">{{cite journal | last1 = Vencl | first1 = F.V. | last2 = Carlson | first2 = D. | year = 1998 | title = Proximate mechanisms of sexual selection in the firefly Photinus pryalis (Coleoptera: Lampyridae) | url = | journal = Journal of Insect behaviour | volume = 11 | issue = | pages = 191–207 }}</ref>

Revision as of 14:22, 15 February 2020

Photinus pyralis
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Animalia
Phylum:
Arthropoda
Class:
Insecta
Order:
Coleoptera
Family:
Lampyridae
Genus:
Photinus
Species:
P. pyralis
Binomial name
Photinus pyralis

Photinus pyralis, known by the common names common eastern firefly[2] and big dipper firefly,[3] is the most common species of firefly in North America.[4] P. pyralis is a flying and light-producing beetle with a light organ on the ventral side of its abdomen. This organism is sometimes incorrectly classified as Photuris pyralis, which likely results from mistaking the similar-sounding genus Photuris.

Common eastern firefly (Photinus pyralis)

The Photuris female may also lure a Photinus pyralis to be eaten to obtain spider-repellent steroids called "lucibufagins".[5] In males the light organ covers the entire ventral surface of the three most posterior segments and in females it only covers a portion of the third posterior segment.[6] These fireflies are most noticeable around twilight, in the early part of the evening and hover close to the ground.[7] The species' common name refers to the characteristic flight of the male, which flies in a J-shaped trajectory, lighting on the upswing.[8] During flight, the J-shaped flight pattern is used in combination with patrolling flash patterns while seeking a mate.[9] Their flashes are stimulated by light conditions, not by rhythmic impulses as originally thought.[7]

The genome of Photinus pyralis was sequenced in 2018.[10]

Light production

Males of Photinus pyralis locate females by a series of light flashes, to which females respond with a coded delay flash. The light organ of P. pyralis is composed of two layers; a layer of refractile cells on the dorsal side and a photic layer with light-producing cells on the ventral side.[11] The light organ (specifically the photogenic layer) is supplied with numerous tracheal branches, which are thought to provide the required oxygen for light production.[11] The light-producing enzyme is luciferase, and is found within cells of the lantern.[12] Luciferases require oxygen, luciferin and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to catalyze a chemical reaction that produces bioluminescence in these insects.[13] It has been shown that the glow is not controlled by the tracheal end cells (which were thought to contain valves) nor by central nerve impulses through studies involving low oxygen conditions.[14] Pupae of these beetles have different light organs than the adult. They do not have the characteristic tracheal end cells of the flashing adults, and whereas the adults emit bright flashes, pupae emit low intensity glowing.[14]

Defense

Beetles from the family Lampyridae have been known to use certain defenses such as unpleasant odour and the excretion of a sticky substance to avoid predation.[15] Excretion of unpleasant fluids from the areas along the elytra and pronotum is the result of tactile stimulation and has been referred to as reflexive bleeding.[16] This reflex bleeding is a defensive function of P.pyralis, as it can cause certain predators to become entangled in the sticky substance (such as ants) or cause revulsion in others upon predation.[16] The excretion contains lucibufagins, steroids found in P. pyralis that render them distasteful to certain bird predators.[17] Whereas adult flashing is used in mate signaling, pupae glow is thought to be an aposematic display for nocturnal predators.[18]

In relation, males of the Photinus species are the prey for females of a different genus, Photuris. Photuris females actually mimic the effects of the Photinus males light-signaling patterns, and by doing this the females lure in the Photinus males. The males naturally produce the steroid lucibufagin, and the reason that the females prey on these males is to obtain this steroid. Once the females prey on the Photinus males, the females gain the steroid lucibufagin to use to their defense against jumping spiders. A study was performed where the Photuris females were collected from nature and forced to reflex bleed which contains the steroid lucibufagin. It was found that when the females were forced to reflex bleed, the samples taken from each female had different amounts of the steroid in each sample. So after experiments were brought out to see which females the jumping spiders would eat it was decided that the jumping spiders were more likely to eat the females with less lucibufagin inside their bodies and the females with more were constantly rejected by the spiders therefore protecting themselves from predation.[19]

Mating

Males are the first to start the series of patrolling flashes needed to locate and mate with a female. Males will actively fly while flashing, whereas females are sedentary.[20] They will flash every 6 seconds and wait for a responding flash from the female, which comes after a 1-2 second delay [9] It has been shown that females only respond to their conspecific males; identifying them by the color of their yellow bioluminescent flash, in combination with the temporal patterning, duration and intensity of the male flash.[21] Females will twist their abdomen towards the males flash, presenting their own flash toward the male. Males can be observed flying in a nearly vertical orientation; their antennae held forward and stiff while their legs are held toward the body during patrolling.[9] They also show an obvious gaze shift towards the last female flash, and continue towards it until the female firefly flashes again.[9] The flashes continue until the male reaches the female. Males congregate in large masses and it is most likely that more than one will find the same female; in this case male P. pyralis display aggression towards one another while not in flight.[22]

During the “aggression” stage, males with smaller elytra and smaller lanterns are favored; whereas during the signaling phase, males with longer elytra and bigger lanterns are favoured.[22] Males with larger lanterns are favored in signaling phases of courtship because their broadcasting flashes can be seen by females who are further away, it is also suggested that due to their longer elytra these males may also have an advantage of finding the females faster.[23] Photinus fireflies do not feed as adults [20] and therefore males are better able to attract females by offering nuptial food gifts, in the form of spermatophores which females can use to provide nutrients to their eggs.[24]

References

  1. ^ "Photinus pyralis". Integrated Taxonomic Information System.
  2. ^ Animal Pictures Archive
  3. ^ "Firefly Companion and Letter Winter 1993-1994" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on June 30, 2007. Retrieved January 12, 2009.
  4. ^ State Symbols USA: Tennessee State Insect
  5. ^ Roger Segelken Lured and liquidated, gullible male fireflies supply 'femmes fatales' with a lifesaving chemical Cornell Chronicle September 1, 1997. Retrieved November 22, 2012.
  6. ^ Mast, S.O. 1912. Behaviour of fire-flies (Photinus pyralis) with special references to the problem of orientation. 256-272
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External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Photinus pyralis.
  • BugGuide with details of Photinus pyralis
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