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''[[Serratia symbiotica|S. symbiotica]]''<br>
''[[Serratia symbiotica|S. symbiotica]]''<br>
''[[Serratia ureilytica|S. ureilytica]]''<ref name=Serratia/><br>
''[[Serratia ureilytica|S. ureilytica]]''<ref name=Serratia/><br>
''[[Serratia vespertilionis|S. vespertilionis]]''<ref name=Serratia/>}}'''''Serratia''''' is a [[genus]] of [[Gram-negative]], [[Facultative anaerobic organism|facultatively anaerobic]], [[Bacillus|rod-shaped]] [[bacteria]] of the family [[Yersiniaceae]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Khanna|first=Ashish|last2=Khanna|first2=Menka|last3=Aggarwal|first3=Aruna|date=2013-2|title=Serratia Marcescens- A Rare Opportunistic Nosocomial Pathogen and Measures to Limit its Spread in Hospitalized Patients|journal=Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research : JCDR|volume=7|issue=2|pages=243–246|doi=10.7860/JCDR/2013/5010.2737|issn=2249-782X|pmc=3592283|pmid=23543704|via=}}</ref>. According to the List of Prokaryotic names with Standing Nomenclature (LPSN), there are currently 19 species of ''Serratia'' that are credibly published with accurate names as of 2020: ''S. aquatilis, S. entomophila, S. ficaria, S. fonticola, S. grimesii, S. liquefaciens, S. marcescens, S. microhaemolytica, S. myotis, S. nematodiphila, S. odoriferae, S. oryzae, S. plymuthica, S. proteamaculans, S. quinivorans corrig, S. rubidaea, S. symbiotica, S. ureilytica, S. vespertilionis''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://lpsn.dsmz.de/genus/serratia|title=Genus: Serratia|website=lpsn.dsmz.de|access-date=2020-04-29}}</ref>. They are typically 1–5 μm in length, do not produce spores<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ldh.la.gov/assets/oph/Center-PHCH/Center-CH/infectious-epi/EpiManual/EnterobacteriaceaeManual.pdf|title=Enterobacteriaceae|last=|first=|date=|website=Louisiana Department of Health|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-04-29}}</ref>, and can be found in water, soil, plants, and animals<ref>{{Citation|last=Fusco|first=Vincenzina|title=Chapter 10 - Opportunistic Food-Borne Pathogens|date=2018-01-01|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B978012814956000010X|work=Food Safety and Preservation|pages=269–306|editor-last=Grumezescu|editor-first=Alexandru Mihai|publisher=Academic Press|language=en|isbn=978-0-12-814956-0|access-date=2020-04-29|last2=Abriouel|first2=Hikmate|last3=Benomar|first3=Nabil|last4=Kabisch|first4=Jan|last5=Chieffi|first5=Daniele|last6=Cho|first6=Gyu-Sung|last7=Franz|first7=Charles M. A. P.|editor2-last=Holban|editor2-first=Alina Maria}}</ref>. Some members of this genus produce a characteristic red [[pigment]], [[prodigiosin]], and can be distinguished from other members of the order Enterobacterales by their unique production of three enzymes: [[DNase]] ([[Serratia marcescens nuclease|nucA]]), [[lipase]], and [[gelatinase]] ([[serralysin]])<ref name=":0" />  ''Serratia'' was thought to be a harmless environmental bacteria until it was discovered that the most common species in the genus, [[Serratia marcescens|S. marcescens]], is an opportunistic pathogen of many animals, including humans<ref name=":0" />. In humans, ''S. marcescens'' is mostly associated with [[Nosocomial infection|nosocomial, or hospital-acquired, infections]], but can also cause urinary tract infections, pneumonia, and endocarditis<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Greenberg|first=Leo|date=1978-11|title=Serratia Marcescens in Human Affairs|journal=Drug Intelligence & Clinical Pharmacy|volume=12|issue=11|pages=674–679|doi=10.1177/106002807801201106|issn=0012-6578|via=}}</ref>. ''S. marcescens'' is frequently found in showers, toilet bowls, and around wetted tiles as a pinkish to red biofilm but only causes disease in immunocompromised individuals. Aside from ''S marcescens,'' some rare strains of the ''Serratia'' species ''S. plymuthica, S. liquefaciens, S. rubidaea,'' and ''S. odoriferae'' have been shown to cause infection such as osteomyelitis and endocarditis<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2019-11-11|title=Serratia: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology|url=https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/228495-overview}}</ref>.
''[[Serratia vespertilionis|S. vespertilionis]]''<ref name=Serratia/>}}


== Habitat ==
'''''Serratia''''' is a [[genus]] of [[Gram-negative]], [[Facultative anaerobic organism|facultatively anaerobic]], [[bacillus|rod-shaped]] [[bacteria]] of the family [[Yersiniaceae]]. They are typically 1–5 μm in length and do not produce spores.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Brock biology of microorganisms|last=1949-|first=Madigan, Michael T.|others=Bender, Kelly S., 1977-, Buckley, Daniel H. (Daniel Hezekiah),, Sattley, W. Matthew, 1975-, Stahl, David Allan, 1949-|isbn=9780134261928|edition= Fifteenth |location=NY, NY|oclc=958205447|date = 2017-01-02}}</ref> The most common and pathogenic of the species in the genus, ''[[Serratia marcescens|S. marcescens]]'', is normally the only [[pathogen]] and usually causes [[nosocomial infection]]s. However, rare strains of ''[[Serratia plymuthica|S. plymuthica]]'', ''[[Serratia liquefaciens|S. liquefaciens]]'', ''[[Serratia rubidaea|S. rubidaea]]'', and ''[[Serratia odoriferae|S. odoriferae]]'' have caused diseases through infection.<ref name=eMed>{{cite web | title=Serratia | work=eMedicine | author=Basilio J. Anía, M.D | url=http://www.emedicine.com/med/topic2103.htm | accessdate=2007-03-14}}</ref> ''S. marcescens'' is typically found in showers, toilet bowls, and around wetted tiles.
Various strains of ''Serratia'' occupy an eclectic range of habitats: soil, water, plants, insects, and others<ref name=":1">{{Citation|last=Grimont|first=Francine|title=The Genus Serratia|date=2006|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/0-387-30746-X_11|work=The Prokaryotes: Volume 6: Proteobacteria: Gamma Subclass|pages=219–244|editor-last=Dworkin|editor-first=Martin|publisher=Springer|language=en|doi=10.1007/0-387-30746-x_11|isbn=978-0-387-30746-6|access-date=2020-04-29|last2=Grimont|first2=Patrick A. D.|editor2-last=Falkow|editor2-first=Stanley|editor3-last=Rosenberg|editor3-first=Eugene|editor4-last=Schleifer|editor4-first=Karl-Heinz}}</ref>.
Some members of this genus produce characteristic red [[pigment]], [[prodigiosin]], and can be distinguished from other members of the order Enterobacterales by their unique production of three enzymes: [[DNase]] ([[Serratia marcescens nuclease|nucA]]), [[lipase]], and [[gelatinase]] ([[serralysin]]).<ref name=uth>{{cite web | title=Serratia | work=University of Texas at Houston Medical School | url=http://medic.med.uth.tmc.edu/path/00001521.htm | accessdate=2007-03-14 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070128113353/http://medic.med.uth.tmc.edu/path/00001521.htm <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archivedate = 2007-01-28}}</ref> <!-- Serratia may be correctly pronounced Ser-ra-shia (common) or Ser-rah-tee-a, although the latter is the correct pronunciation in [[Latin]]. -->


==Infection of humans==
=== Water ===
Currently, four species of ''Serratia'' have been found in sea water: ''S. marcescens, S. liquefaciens, S. plymuthica,'' and ''S. marinorubra. S. marcescens'' is the most abundant, comprising approximately half of all strains found<ref>Grimont, P. A. D. 1977. Le genre Ser­ratia. Taxonomie et approche ecolo­gique. PhD Thesis. Univ. Bordeaux I, France. 377 pp.</ref>. ''S. aquatilis'' is a novel species of ''Serratia'' found in drinking water<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kämpfer|first=Peter|last2=Glaeser|first2=Stefanie P.|date=2016-01|title=Serratia aquatilis sp. nov., isolated from drinking water systems|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26537514|journal=International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology|volume=66|issue=1|pages=407–413|doi=10.1099/ijsem.0.000731|issn=1466-5034|pmid=26537514}}</ref>.
The bacterium is an [[Opportunistic infection|opportunistic human pathogen]], capitalizing on its ability to form tight-knit surface communities called [[biofilm]]s wherever it can.<ref name="Medscape">{{cite web|url=http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/228495-overview#showall|website= Medscape|title=Serratia|date=21 October 2015|author1=Basilio J Anía}}</ref> ''S. marcescens'' is thought to be transmitted through hand-to-hand transmission by hospital personnel.<ref name="Medscape"/> In the hospital, ''Serratia'' species tend to colonize the [[Respiratory tract|respiratory]] and urinary tracts, rather than the [[Human gastrointestinal tract|gastrointestinal tract]], in adults. ''Serratia'' infection is responsible for about 2% of nosocomial infections of the bloodstream, lower respiratory tract, urinary tract, surgical wounds, and skin and soft tissues in adult patients. Outbreaks of ''S. marcescens'' [[meningitis]], wound infections, and [[arthritis]] have occurred in pediatric wards.<ref>Health Canada. MSDS - Infectious Substances. Serratia. (http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/lab-bio/res/psds-ftss/msds138e-eng.php) Accessed 7 July 2011.</ref>


=== Plants ===
Cases of ''Serratia'' arthritis have been reported in outpatients receiving intra-articular injections.{{Citation needed|date=March 2019}}
The plant types with highest ''Serratia'' prevalence are vegetables, mushrooms, mosses, grasses, and decaying plant material<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Grimont|first=Patrick A. D.|last2=Grimont|first2=Francine|last3=Starr|first3=Mortimer P.|date=1981-09-01|title=Serratia species isolated from plants|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01567926|journal=Current Microbiology|language=en|volume=5|issue=5|pages=317–322|doi=10.1007/BF01567926|issn=1432-0991}}</ref>. ''Serratia'' has been consistently found in figs and coconuts. ''S. marcescens'' and ''S. ficaria'' are often found in Calimyrna figs. Several species related to ''Serratia'' have also been identified on Smyrna figs and its fig wasps. Only one species of ''Serratia,'' ''S. marinorubra,'' have been identified on coconuts from various regions of the world, including California, France, and Brazil. Both ''S. marcescens'' and certain strains of [[Enterobacter]] were also identified in rhizospheres of coconut palms<ref>{{Cite journal|last=George|first=Priya|last2=Gupta|first2=Alka|last3=Gopal|first3=Murali|last4=Thomas|first4=Litty|last5=Thomas|first5=George V.|date=2013-01|title=Multifarious beneficial traits and plant growth promoting potential of Serratia marcescens KiSII and Enterobacter sp. RNF 267 isolated from the rhizosphere of coconut palms (Cocos nucifera L.)|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22948479|journal=World Journal of Microbiology & Biotechnology|volume=29|issue=1|pages=109–117|doi=10.1007/s11274-012-1163-6|issn=1573-0972|pmid=22948479}}</ref>.


=== Insects ===
=== Associated Immunodeficiencies and Diseases ===
''Serratia'' are found in over 70 species of healthy, dead, and diseased insects. These include crickets, grasshoppers, bees, aphids, and fruit flies<ref name=":1" />. Most of them reside in insects as bacterial flora and some form mutualistic symbiotic relationships with their hosts. For example, in aphids, strains of ''S. symbiotica'' play a key nutritional role by providing the host with vitamins and amino acids<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Renoz|first=François|last2=Pons|first2=Inès|last3=Vanderpoorten|first3=Alain|last4=Bataille|first4=Gwennaël|last5=Noël|first5=Christine|last6=Foray|first6=Vincent|last7=Pierson|first7=Valentin|last8=Hance|first8=Thierry|date=2019-07-01|title=Evidence for Gut-Associated Serratia symbiotica in Wild Aphids and Ants Provides New Perspectives on the Evolution of Bacterial Mutualism in Insects|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00248-018-1265-2|journal=Microbial Ecology|language=en|volume=78|issue=1|pages=159–169|doi=10.1007/s00248-018-1265-2|issn=1432-184X}}</ref>.
{{unreferenced section|date=March 2019}}
* Chronic Granulomatous Disease{{Citation needed|date=March 2019}}
* Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV){{Citation needed|date=March 2019}}
* Idiopathic CD4+-lymphopenia{{Citation needed|date=March 2019}}


== Isolation and identification ==
== Isolation, Identification, and Metabolism ==
Species of ''Serratia'' have been isolated in a variety of environments, including soil, water, plants, animals and even air.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kämpfer|first=Peter|last2=Glaeser|first2=Stefanie P.|date=2016|title=Serratia aquatilis sp. nov., isolated from drinking water systems|journal=International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology|volume=66|issue=1|pages=407–413|doi=10.1099/ijsem.0.000731|pmid=26537514|doi-access=free}}</ref> Several methods can be used to study the epidemiology of ''S. marcescens''. Usual enrichment strategies involve the use of media containing antibiotic and antifungal substances. A caprylate-thallous media seems to be highly preferred for the selective growth of genus ''Serratia'', as it can use caprylic acid as a carbon source.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Starr|first=M. P.|last2=Grimont|first2=P. A.|last3=Grimont|first3=F.|last4=Starr|first4=P. B.|date=September 1976|title=Caprylate-thallous agar medium for selectively isolating Serratia and its utility in the clinical laboratory|journal=Journal of Clinical Microbiology|volume=4|issue=3|pages=270–276|issn=0095-1137|pmc=274449|pmid=972193}}</ref>


=== Isolation ===
Serological typing and different types of [[polymerase chain reaction]] can be used to identify the bacteria. Biotyping, bacteriocin typing, phage typing, plasmid analysis, and ribotyping can also be used<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal | last1 = Hejazi | first1 = A | last2 = Falkiner | first2 = F | title = Serratia marcescens| url = https://semanticscholar.org/paper/4bceef7672cb55b35c565ae9ae0bc92ba78f6be6| journal = J. Med. Microbiol. | volume = 46 | issue = 11| pages = 903–912 | doi = 10.1099/00222615-46-11-903 | pmid=9368530 | date=November 1997}}</ref>
''S. marcescens'' is the most characterized  species in this genus. During the summer in Padura, Italy, the town people discovered that their polenta dish turned red. At first, the people believed that this incident was caused by the devil. A pharmacist named Bartolomeo Bizzo was appointed to investigate the strange phenomenon. After several experiments, Bizzo presented his results. ''S. marcescens'' was first documented as red-colored [[putrefaction]] of [[polenta]] by Bartolomeo Bizio in Padua. The bacterium was later named in honor of Italian physicist Serafino Serrati.<!--citations needed-->In 1945, an experiment was designed to establish the pathogenicity of ''S. marcescens.'' Captain Tom Paine in the U.S army conducted an experiment at Camp Detrick, MD. In this experiment, he exposed four people to the bacteria in an enclosed space. The individuals soon developed symptoms such as body aches, malaise, green sputum production. A few of the individuals developed fever and chills while others still had a fever after 24 hours. Several other experiments were performed throughout the 50s, 60s, and 70s to test the pathogenicity of ''S. marcescens,'' but it wasn't until the 1970s that ''S. marcescens'' was confirmed as a human pathogen.
''S. marcescens'' appears red on trypticase soy agar slants when grown at around 25&nbsp;°C.<ref>.Leboffe, Michael J., and Burton E. Pierce. "Section 3: Bacterial Growth." A Photographic Atlas for the Microbiology Laboratory. 4th ed. Englewood, CO: Morton Pub., 2011. 26. Print.</ref>
''S. marcescens'' and ''S. liquefaciens'' can be easily confused in the lab when using the [[analytical profile index]] system. They can both oxidise [[arabinose]], but only ''S. liquefaciens'' can ferment arabinose in [[peptone water]].<ref name="ReferenceA" />


''S. liquefaciens'' is the second best characterized species after ''S. marcescens. S. liquefaciens'' was first classified as Aerobacter liquefaciens in the Enterobacter genus by Grimes and Hennerty [1]. The first documentation of ''S. liquefaciens'' was in 1971. Over 20 isolates of ''S. liquefaciens'' were recovered from different specimens such as urinary and respiratory. Out of the isolates, 6 of them were believed to cause infection in humans. From the 70s to 80s, this species was the cause of several hospital outbreaks. However, the most well-known outbreak occurred in Colorado at a [[hemodialysis]] center[1]. During this outbreak, there were 10 ''S. liquefaciens'' bloodstream infections<!--citations needed-->.
==History==

''S. marcescens'' was first documented as a red-coloured [[putrefaction]] of [[polenta]]<ref name="JBact">{{cite journal|journal=Journal of Bacteriology|date=November 1924|volume=9|issue=6|pages=527–543|title=Bartolomeo Bizio's Letter to the most Eminent Priest, Angelo Bellani, Concerning the Phenomenon of the Red Colored Polenta|pmc=379088|pmid=16559067 | last1 = Merlino | first1 = CP}}</ref> by Bartolomeo Bizio in Padua. The bacterium was later named in honour of Italian physicist [[Serafino Serrati]] and ''[[wikt:marcescens#Participle|marcescens]]'' because of the pigment's rapid discolouration and decay.<ref name="JBact" />{{rp|538}}
''S. ficaria'' is another species that can be  harmful to humans. ''S. ficaria'' is a part of the fig tree community. In 1979, ''S. ficaria'' was first isolated from a patient who had a respiratory infection[1]. The organism was isolated from the patient's sputum after she consumed a fig. The organisms continued to be isolated from several humans over the years. The last documented infection caused by ''S. ficaria'' was in Greece. A healthy man was bitten by a dog, the dog bite turned into an abscess. This was the first infection that was in a healthy individual.<!--citations needed-->''S. fonticola'' species was first found in human specimens in 1985. It is known to cause tissue infections following trauma to the area. The first reported infection caused by ''S. fonticola'' species was in 1989. The organism caused a leg abscess in a woman in France. In 1991, ''S. fonticola'' was the cause of a hand infection in another french woman. ''S. fonticola'' has been  recovered from several other patients over the years.

There are not many reports of ''S. quinivoran'' causing infection in humans. A homeless man in France was admitted to the hospital with a mouth abscess. The man developed pneumonia and respiratory issues. ''S. quinivoran'' was recovered from a sample and was later identified as the cause of his organ failure and death. ''S. rubidaea, S. odorifera,'' and ''S. plymuthica'' are other ''Serratia'' species that are human pathogens. However, not all ''Serratia'' species are human pathogens. ''S. entomophia'' and ''S. proteamaculans'' are insect and plant pathogens.

=== Identification ===
Species of ''Serratia'' have been isolated in a variety of environments, including soil, water, plants, animals and even air. Several methods can be used to study the epidemiology of ''S. marcescens.'' Usual enrichment strategies involve the use of media containing antibiotic and antifungal substances. A caprylate-thallous media seems to be highly preferred for the selective growth of genus ''Serratia'', as it can use caprylic acid as a carbon source.

Serological typing and different types of [[polymerase chain reaction]] can be used to identify the ''Serratia''. Biotyping, bacteriocin typing, phage typing, plasmid analysis, and ribotyping can also be used. Most strains of ''S. marcescens'' appear red on trypticase soy agar slants when grown at around 25 °C. ''S. marcescens'' and ''S. liquefaciens'' can be easily confused in the lab when using the [[analytical profile index]] system. They can both oxidise [[arabinose]], but only ''S. liquefaciens'' can ferment arabinose in [[peptone water]]. The virulence of ''Serratia'' strains can also be identifiable by type 4 fimbriae, small hair-like projections<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Singh|first=B. R.|last2=Singh|first2=Y.|last3=Tiwari|first3=A. K.|date=1997-03-03|title=Characterisation of virulence factors of Serratia strains isolated from foods|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0168160596011968|journal=International Journal of Food Microbiology|language=en|volume=34|issue=3|pages=259–266|doi=10.1016/S0168-1605(96)01196-8|issn=0168-1605}}</ref>.

==== Genome Content ====
The average genome size of most ''Serratia'' species has not been documented except for that of ''S. marcescens,'' which is 3.57 * 10<sup>9</sup> Daltons. The range of G+C content of each species is as follows: ''S. marcescens'' 57.5 – 60.4%, ''S. liquefaciens'' 52.6-54.4%, ''S. plymuthica'' 53.3-56.3%, ''S. marinorubra'' 53.5-58.5%. ''S. macescens'' genome has the highest G+C content among all enterobacteria<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Starr|first=M P|last2=Grimont|first2=P A|last3=Grimont|first3=F|last4=Starr|first4=P B|date=1976-09|title=Caprylate-thallous agar medium for selectively isolating Serratia and its utility in the clinical laboratory.|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC274449/|journal=Journal of Clinical Microbiology|volume=4|issue=3|pages=270–276|issn=0095-1137|pmid=972193}}</ref>.

==== Enzymes and Biofilm ====
''Serratia'' secrete a host of virulence factors including prodigiosin, biosurfactants, DNAse, lipase, protease, gelatinase, hemolysin, chitinase, chloroperoxidase, and alkaline phosphatase. Prodigiosin, a growth pigment, is often used as a phenotypic identification marker of ''Serratia'' species due to its red colorization<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Haddix|first=Pryce L.|last2=Shanks|first2=Robert M. Q.|date=2018-09|title=Prodigiosin pigment of Serratia marcescens is associated with increased biomass production|journal=Archives of Microbiology|volume=200|issue=7|pages=989–999|doi=10.1007/s00203-018-1508-0|issn=1432-072X|pmid=29616306|via=}}</ref>. Biosurfactants have been isolated from ''Serratia'' ''marcescens,'' ''Serratia rubidaea'' and ''Serratia surfactantfaciens'' for their range of applications including emulsification, surface, antifouling, antitumor, and antimicrobial activity<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Clements|first=T.|last2=Ndlovu|first2=T.|last3=Khan|first3=S.|last4=Khan|first4=W.|date=2018-11-19|title=Biosurfactants produced by Serratia species: Classification, biosynthesis, production and application|journal=Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology|volume=103|issue=2|pages=589–602|doi=10.1007/s00253-018-9520-5|issn=0175-7598|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Araújo|first=Hélvia W. C.|last2=Andrade|first2=Rosileide F. S.|last3=Montero-Rodríguez|first3=Dayana|last4=Rubio-Ribeaux|first4=Daylin|last5=Alves da Silva|first5=Carlos A.|last6=Campos-Takaki|first6=Galba M.|date=2019-01-04|title=Sustainable biosurfactant produced by Serratia marcescens UCP 1549 and its suitability for agricultural and marine bioremediation applications|journal=Microbial Cell Factories|volume=18|pages=|doi=10.1186/s12934-018-1046-0|issn=1475-2859|pmc=6318876|pmid=30609918|via=}}</ref>. Endonucleases, such as DNAse, may aid in scavenging activity, allowing them to exploit the environment and maximize availability of nutrients<ref>Benedik, M. J., & Strych, U. (1998). ''Serratia marcescens'' and its extracellular nuclease. FEMS Microbiology Letters, 165(1), 1–13. doi: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.1998.tb13120.x</ref>. Strains producing thermostable lipase<ref>{{Cite journal|last=García‐Silvera|first=Edgar Edurman|last2=Martínez‐Morales|first2=Fernando|last3=Bertrand|first3=Brandt|last4=Morales‐Guzmán|first4=Daniel|last5=Rosas‐Galván|first5=Nashbly Sarela|last6=León‐Rodríguez|first6=Renato|last7=Trejo‐Hernández|first7=María R.|date=2018|title=Production and application of a thermostable lipase from Serratia marcescens in detergent formulation and biodiesel production|journal=Biotechnology and Applied Biochemistry|language=en|volume=65|issue=2|pages=156–172|doi=10.1002/bab.1565|issn=1470-8744|via=}}</ref>, alkaline protease and gelatinase<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pinna|first=Antonio|last2=Usai|first2=Donatella|last3=Sechi|first3=Leonardo A.|last4=Carta|first4=Arturo|last5=Zanetti|first5=Stefania|date=2011|title=Detection of virulence factors in Serratia strains isolated from contact lens-associated corneal ulcers|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1755-3768.2009.01689.x|journal=Acta Ophthalmologica|language=en|volume=89|issue=4|pages=382–387|doi=10.1111/j.1755-3768.2009.01689.x|issn=1755-3768}}</ref> have been isolated from strains causing contact lens-related corneal ulcers in humans. Due to its short half-life and tendency to remain bound to cells upon secretion, hemolysin has scarcely been identified in ''Serratia.'' However, some studies employing more accurate detection techniques have evidenced hemolytic activity in almost all strains of ''Serratia''<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ruan|first=Yuan|last2=Braum|first2=Volkmar|date=1990-08-01|title=Hemolysin as a marker for Serratia|journal=Archives of Microbiology|language=en|volume=154|issue=3|pages=221–225|doi=10.1007/BF00248958|issn=1432-072X|via=}}</ref>. Plant [[Chitinase|chitinases]] are used as defense mechanisms against plant pathogens with which ''Serratia'' shares their plant habitat<ref>{{Citation|last=Joshi|first=Sadhna|title=Cloning of Serratia Liquefaciens Chitinase Gene(s)|date=1987|url=https://link-springer-com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-009-4482-4_83|work=Molecular genetics of plant-microbe interactions|pages=328–330|publisher=Springer Netherlands|doi=10.1007/978-94-009-4482-4_83|isbn=978-94-010-8496-3|access-date=2020-04-29|last2=Kozlowski|first2=Maya}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=Fuchs|first=R. L.|title=Cloning and Expression of a Serratia Marcescens Gene Encoding Chitinase|date=1987|url=https://link-springer-com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-009-3555-6_101|work=Plant Pathogenic Bacteria|pages=478–478|publisher=Springer Netherlands|doi=10.1007/978-94-009-3555-6_101|isbn=978-94-010-8090-3|access-date=2020-04-29|last2=McPherson|first2=S. A.|last3=Drahos|first3=D. J.}}</ref>. Chloroperoxidase allows hydrolysis of phosphodiester bonds<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Preobrazhenskaya|first=Yu. V.|last2=Voskoboev|first2=A. I.|last3=Burd|first3=V. N.|date=2003-11-01|title=Hydrolysis of Phosphoester Bond by the Heme-Independent Chloroperoxidase from Serratia marcescens|journal=Russian Journal of Bioorganic Chemistry|language=en|volume=29|issue=6|pages=556–559|doi=10.1023/B:RUBI.0000008896.40862.d6|issn=1573-9163|via=}}</ref> while alkaline [[Phosphatase|phosphatases]] are involved in cell signaling processes.

=== Metabolism ===
''Serratia'' utilizes a metabolic enzyme ADP glucose pyrophosphorylase with distinct kinetic properties from those found in Enterobacteriaceae in that it is not greatly activated by fructose bisphosphate. ADP glucose pyrophosphorylase from strains of ''S. marcescens'' demonstrated optimal activity in buffer at pH 7.5 and 8.0, respectively. It is greatly activated by glycolysis intermediates such as phosphoenolpyruvate, 3-phosphoglycerate, fructose-6-phosphate, and 2-phosphoglycerate<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Preiss|first=J|last2=Crawford|first2=K|last3=Downey|first3=J|last4=Lammel|first4=C|last5=Greenberg|first5=E|date=1976-07|title=Kinetic properties of Serratia marcescens adenosine 5'-diphosphate glucose pyrophosphorylase.|journal=Journal of Bacteriology|volume=127|issue=1|pages=193–203|issn=0021-9193|pmid=6432|via=}}</ref>

== Pathology ==
Most ''Serratia'' species are nonpathogenic, but those that are pathogenic typically cause infection in immunocompromised individuals<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mahlen|first=Steven D.|date=2011-10|title=Serratia Infections: from Military Experiments to Current Practice|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3194826/|journal=Clinical Microbiology Reviews|volume=24|issue=4|pages=755–791|doi=10.1128/CMR.00017-11|issn=0893-8512|pmc=3194826|pmid=21976608}}</ref>. ''S. marcescens'' is the main pathogenic species, infecting animals and plants, but other species that have been reported to infect individuals includes ''Serratia plymuthica,'' ''Serratia liquefaciens,'' ''Serratia rubidaea, Serratia odorifera,'' and ''Serratia fonticola''.

=== Opportunistic Human Pathogen ===
''S. marcescens'' is thought to be transmitted through hand-to-hand transmission by non-infected people via hand to hand transmission, hospital equipment, hospital personnel<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.antimicrobe.org/b26.asp|title=Serratia marcescens - Infectious Disease and Antimicrobial Agents|last=|first=|date=|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-04-29}}</ref>. In the hospital, ''Serratia'' species tend to colonize the [[Respiratory tract|respiratory]] and urinary tracts, rather than the [[Human gastrointestinal tract|gastrointestinal tract]], in adults. ''Serratia'' infection is responsible for about 2% of nosocomial infections of the bloodstream, lower respiratory tract, urinary tract, surgical wounds, and skin and soft tissues and other ailments that are commonly caused by other bacteria<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2019-11-11|title=Serratia: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology|url=https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/228495-overview}}</ref>. Outbreaks of ''S. marcescens'' [[meningitis]], wound infections, and [[arthritis]] have occurred in pediatric wards.

Cases of ''Serratia'' arthritis have been reported in outpatients receiving intra-articular injections<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Martins|first=Hugo F G|last2=Raposo|first2=Alexandra|last3=Baptista|first3=Isabel|last4=Almeida|first4=Julio|date=2015-11-30|title=Serratia marcescens osteomyelitis in Cushing's disease|journal=BMJ Case Reports|volume=2015|pages=|doi=10.1136/bcr-2015-212872|issn=1757-790X|pmc=4680297|pmid=26621903|via=}}</ref>.

=== Opportunistic Non-Human Pathogen ===
There have been cases of ''Serratia'' non-human animal infections. One case of a non-nosocomial infection in animals was found in one study, after ''S. marcescens'' was found to be correlated in early abortions of buffalos and cows. The pathogen was isolated in culture after researchers observed reddish vaginal discharge from the cows and the pathogen was also discovered to be in the semen of a bull, all of which were from the same strain<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Das|first=A. M.|last2=Paranjape|first2=V. L.|last3=Pitt|first3=T. L.|date=1988|title=Serratia marcescens Infection Associated with Early Abortion in Cows and Buffaloes|journal=Epidemiology and Infection|volume=101|issue=1|pages=143–149|issn=0950-2688|via=}}</ref>.

=== Opportunistic Plant Pathogen ===
''S. marcescens and S. Proteamaculans'' are considered to be opportunistic plant pathogens. ''S. marcescens'' causes cucurbit yellow vine disease (CYVD)<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Bruton|first=B. D.|last2=Mitchell|first2=F.|last3=Fletcher|first3=J.|last4=Pair|first4=S. D.|last5=Wayadande|first5=A.|last6=Melcher|first6=U.|last7=Brady|first7=J.|last8=Bextine|first8=B.|last9=Popham|first9=T. W.|date=2003-08|title=Serratia marcescens , a Phloem-Colonizing, Squash Bug -Transmitted Bacterium: Causal Agent of Cucurbit Yellow Vine Disease|journal=Plant Disease|language=en|volume=87|issue=8|pages=937–944|doi=10.1094/PDIS.2003.87.8.937|issn=0191-2917|via=}}</ref>. CYVD was first detected in pumpkin and squash. CYVD infects the phloem tissue in plants and causes wilting, yellowing, phloem discoloration, plant decline, and eventually death<ref name=":2" />. CYVD mainly affects squash, cantaloupe, watermelon, and etc. There have been studies that have shown that this disease is transmitted by insects<ref name=":2" />. ''S. proteamaculans'' is the only other species known to cause harm to plants. ''S. proteamaculans'' is associated with leaf spot disease. Leaf spot disease is usually caused by a fungus, but can also be caused by bacteria (e.g. ''S. proteamaculans''). Leaf spot disease appears as brown or dark spots on leaves and can permanently damage plants. The sizes and colors of these spots can vary.


==References==
==References==

Revision as of 18:30, 29 April 2020

Serratia
Serratia marcescens, a typical species, on XLD agar.[1]
Scientific classification
Domain:
Bacteria
Phylum:
Proteobacteria
Class:
Gammaproteobacteria
Order:
Enterobacterales
Family:
Yersiniaceae
Genus:
Serratia

Bizio 1823[2][3]
Species

S. aquatilis[4]
S. entomophila
S. ficaria
S. fonticola
S. glossinae[4]
S. grimesii
S. liquefaciens
S. marcescens
S. myotis[4]
S. nematodiphila
S. odorifera
S. plymuthica
S. proteamaculans
S. quinivorans
S. rubidaea
S. symbiotica
S. ureilytica[4]
S. vespertilionis[4]

Serratia is a genus of Gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria of the family Yersiniaceae[5]. According to the List of Prokaryotic names with Standing Nomenclature (LPSN), there are currently 19 species of Serratia that are credibly published with accurate names as of 2020: S. aquatilis, S. entomophila, S. ficaria, S. fonticola, S. grimesii, S. liquefaciens, S. marcescens, S. microhaemolytica, S. myotis, S. nematodiphila, S. odoriferae, S. oryzae, S. plymuthica, S. proteamaculans, S. quinivorans corrig, S. rubidaea, S. symbiotica, S. ureilytica, S. vespertilionis[6]. They are typically 1–5 μm in length, do not produce spores[7], and can be found in water, soil, plants, and animals[8]. Some members of this genus produce a characteristic red pigment, prodigiosin, and can be distinguished from other members of the order Enterobacterales by their unique production of three enzymes: DNase (nucA), lipase, and gelatinase (serralysin)[5]  Serratia was thought to be a harmless environmental bacteria until it was discovered that the most common species in the genus, S. marcescens, is an opportunistic pathogen of many animals, including humans[5]. In humans, S. marcescens is mostly associated with nosocomial, or hospital-acquired, infections, but can also cause urinary tract infections, pneumonia, and endocarditis[9]. S. marcescens is frequently found in showers, toilet bowls, and around wetted tiles as a pinkish to red biofilm but only causes disease in immunocompromised individuals. Aside from S marcescens, some rare strains of the Serratia species S. plymuthica, S. liquefaciens, S. rubidaea, and S. odoriferae have been shown to cause infection such as osteomyelitis and endocarditis[10].

Habitat

Various strains of Serratia occupy an eclectic range of habitats: soil, water, plants, insects, and others[11].

Water

Currently, four species of Serratia have been found in sea water: S. marcescens, S. liquefaciens, S. plymuthica, and S. marinorubra. S. marcescens is the most abundant, comprising approximately half of all strains found[12]. S. aquatilis is a novel species of Serratia found in drinking water[13].

Plants

The plant types with highest Serratia prevalence are vegetables, mushrooms, mosses, grasses, and decaying plant material[14]. Serratia has been consistently found in figs and coconuts. S. marcescens and S. ficaria are often found in Calimyrna figs. Several species related to Serratia have also been identified on Smyrna figs and its fig wasps. Only one species of Serratia, S. marinorubra, have been identified on coconuts from various regions of the world, including California, France, and Brazil. Both S. marcescens and certain strains of Enterobacter were also identified in rhizospheres of coconut palms[15].

Insects

Serratia are found in over 70 species of healthy, dead, and diseased insects. These include crickets, grasshoppers, bees, aphids, and fruit flies[11]. Most of them reside in insects as bacterial flora and some form mutualistic symbiotic relationships with their hosts. For example, in aphids, strains of S. symbiotica play a key nutritional role by providing the host with vitamins and amino acids[16].

Isolation, Identification, and Metabolism

Isolation

S. marcescens is the most characterized  species in this genus. During the summer in Padura, Italy, the town people discovered that their polenta dish turned red. At first, the people believed that this incident was caused by the devil. A pharmacist named Bartolomeo Bizzo was appointed to investigate the strange phenomenon. After several experiments, Bizzo presented his results. S. marcescens was first documented as red-colored putrefaction of polenta by Bartolomeo Bizio in Padua. The bacterium was later named in honor of Italian physicist Serafino Serrati.In 1945, an experiment was designed to establish the pathogenicity of S. marcescens. Captain Tom Paine in the U.S army conducted an experiment at Camp Detrick, MD. In this experiment, he exposed four people to the bacteria in an enclosed space. The individuals soon developed symptoms such as body aches, malaise, green sputum production. A few of the individuals developed fever and chills while others still had a fever after 24 hours. Several other experiments were performed throughout the 50s, 60s, and 70s to test the pathogenicity of S. marcescens, but it wasn't until the 1970s that S. marcescens was confirmed as a human pathogen.

S. liquefaciens is the second best characterized species after S. marcescens. S. liquefaciens was first classified as Aerobacter liquefaciens in the Enterobacter genus by Grimes and Hennerty [1]. The first documentation of S. liquefaciens was in 1971. Over 20 isolates of S. liquefaciens were recovered from different specimens such as urinary and respiratory. Out of the isolates, 6 of them were believed to cause infection in humans. From the 70s to 80s, this species was the cause of several hospital outbreaks. However, the most well-known outbreak occurred in Colorado at a hemodialysis center[1]. During this outbreak, there were 10 S. liquefaciens bloodstream infections.

S. ficaria is another species that can be  harmful to humans. S. ficaria is a part of the fig tree community. In 1979, S. ficaria was first isolated from a patient who had a respiratory infection[1]. The organism was isolated from the patient's sputum after she consumed a fig. The organisms continued to be isolated from several humans over the years. The last documented infection caused by S. ficaria was in Greece. A healthy man was bitten by a dog, the dog bite turned into an abscess. This was the first infection that was in a healthy individual.S. fonticola species was first found in human specimens in 1985. It is known to cause tissue infections following trauma to the area. The first reported infection caused by S. fonticola species was in 1989. The organism caused a leg abscess in a woman in France. In 1991, S. fonticola was the cause of a hand infection in another french woman. S. fonticola has been  recovered from several other patients over the years.

There are not many reports of S. quinivoran causing infection in humans. A homeless man in France was admitted to the hospital with a mouth abscess. The man developed pneumonia and respiratory issues. S. quinivoran was recovered from a sample and was later identified as the cause of his organ failure and death. S. rubidaea, S. odorifera, and S. plymuthica are other Serratia species that are human pathogens. However, not all Serratia species are human pathogens. S. entomophia and S. proteamaculans are insect and plant pathogens.

Identification

Species of Serratia have been isolated in a variety of environments, including soil, water, plants, animals and even air. Several methods can be used to study the epidemiology of S. marcescens. Usual enrichment strategies involve the use of media containing antibiotic and antifungal substances. A caprylate-thallous media seems to be highly preferred for the selective growth of genus Serratia, as it can use caprylic acid as a carbon source.

Serological typing and different types of polymerase chain reaction can be used to identify the Serratia. Biotyping, bacteriocin typing, phage typing, plasmid analysis, and ribotyping can also be used. Most strains of S. marcescens appear red on trypticase soy agar slants when grown at around 25 °C. S. marcescens and S. liquefaciens can be easily confused in the lab when using the analytical profile index system. They can both oxidise arabinose, but only S. liquefaciens can ferment arabinose in peptone water. The virulence of Serratia strains can also be identifiable by type 4 fimbriae, small hair-like projections[17].

Genome Content

The average genome size of most Serratia species has not been documented except for that of S. marcescens, which is 3.57 * 109 Daltons. The range of G+C content of each species is as follows: S. marcescens 57.5 – 60.4%, S. liquefaciens 52.6-54.4%, S. plymuthica 53.3-56.3%, S. marinorubra 53.5-58.5%. S. macescens genome has the highest G+C content among all enterobacteria[18].

Enzymes and Biofilm

Serratia secrete a host of virulence factors including prodigiosin, biosurfactants, DNAse, lipase, protease, gelatinase, hemolysin, chitinase, chloroperoxidase, and alkaline phosphatase. Prodigiosin, a growth pigment, is often used as a phenotypic identification marker of Serratia species due to its red colorization[19]. Biosurfactants have been isolated from Serratia marcescens, Serratia rubidaea and Serratia surfactantfaciens for their range of applications including emulsification, surface, antifouling, antitumor, and antimicrobial activity[20][21]. Endonucleases, such as DNAse, may aid in scavenging activity, allowing them to exploit the environment and maximize availability of nutrients[22]. Strains producing thermostable lipase[23], alkaline protease and gelatinase[24] have been isolated from strains causing contact lens-related corneal ulcers in humans. Due to its short half-life and tendency to remain bound to cells upon secretion, hemolysin has scarcely been identified in Serratia. However, some studies employing more accurate detection techniques have evidenced hemolytic activity in almost all strains of Serratia[25]. Plant chitinases are used as defense mechanisms against plant pathogens with which Serratia shares their plant habitat[26][27]. Chloroperoxidase allows hydrolysis of phosphodiester bonds[28] while alkaline phosphatases are involved in cell signaling processes.

Metabolism

Serratia utilizes a metabolic enzyme ADP glucose pyrophosphorylase with distinct kinetic properties from those found in Enterobacteriaceae in that it is not greatly activated by fructose bisphosphate. ADP glucose pyrophosphorylase from strains of S. marcescens demonstrated optimal activity in buffer at pH 7.5 and 8.0, respectively. It is greatly activated by glycolysis intermediates such as phosphoenolpyruvate, 3-phosphoglycerate, fructose-6-phosphate, and 2-phosphoglycerate[29]

Pathology

Most Serratia species are nonpathogenic, but those that are pathogenic typically cause infection in immunocompromised individuals[30]. S. marcescens is the main pathogenic species, infecting animals and plants, but other species that have been reported to infect individuals includes Serratia plymuthica, Serratia liquefaciens, Serratia rubidaea, Serratia odorifera, and Serratia fonticola.

Opportunistic Human Pathogen

S. marcescens is thought to be transmitted through hand-to-hand transmission by non-infected people via hand to hand transmission, hospital equipment, hospital personnel[31]. In the hospital, Serratia species tend to colonize the respiratory and urinary tracts, rather than the gastrointestinal tract, in adults. Serratia infection is responsible for about 2% of nosocomial infections of the bloodstream, lower respiratory tract, urinary tract, surgical wounds, and skin and soft tissues and other ailments that are commonly caused by other bacteria[32]. Outbreaks of S. marcescens meningitis, wound infections, and arthritis have occurred in pediatric wards.

Cases of Serratia arthritis have been reported in outpatients receiving intra-articular injections[33].

Opportunistic Non-Human Pathogen

There have been cases of Serratia non-human animal infections. One case of a non-nosocomial infection in animals was found in one study, after S. marcescens was found to be correlated in early abortions of buffalos and cows. The pathogen was isolated in culture after researchers observed reddish vaginal discharge from the cows and the pathogen was also discovered to be in the semen of a bull, all of which were from the same strain[34].

Opportunistic Plant Pathogen

S. marcescens and S. Proteamaculans are considered to be opportunistic plant pathogens. S. marcescens causes cucurbit yellow vine disease (CYVD)[35]. CYVD was first detected in pumpkin and squash. CYVD infects the phloem tissue in plants and causes wilting, yellowing, phloem discoloration, plant decline, and eventually death[35]. CYVD mainly affects squash, cantaloupe, watermelon, and etc. There have been studies that have shown that this disease is transmitted by insects[35]. S. proteamaculans is the only other species known to cause harm to plants. S. proteamaculans is associated with leaf spot disease. Leaf spot disease is usually caused by a fungus, but can also be caused by bacteria (e.g. S. proteamaculans). Leaf spot disease appears as brown or dark spots on leaves and can permanently damage plants. The sizes and colors of these spots can vary.

References

  1. ^ Images courtesy of CDC Accessed 7 July 2011.
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  3. ^ "Serratia". In: List of Prokaryotic Names with Standing in Nomenclature (LPSN). Created by J.P. Euzéby in 1997. Curated by A.C. Parte since 2013. Available on: http://www.bacterio.net. Retrieved 7 July 2017.
  4. ^ a b c d e LPSN lpsn.dsmz.de
  5. ^ a b c Khanna, Ashish; Khanna, Menka; Aggarwal, Aruna (2013-2). "Serratia Marcescens- A Rare Opportunistic Nosocomial Pathogen and Measures to Limit its Spread in Hospitalized Patients". Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research : JCDR. 7 (2): 243–246. doi:10.7860/JCDR/2013/5010.2737. ISSN 2249-782X. PMC 3592283. PMID 23543704. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  6. ^ "Genus: Serratia". lpsn.dsmz.de. Retrieved 29 April 2020.
  7. ^ "Enterobacteriaceae" (PDF). Louisiana Department of Health. Retrieved 29 April 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
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  9. ^ Greenberg, Leo (1978-11). "Serratia Marcescens in Human Affairs". Drug Intelligence & Clinical Pharmacy. 12 (11): 674–679. doi:10.1177/106002807801201106. ISSN 0012-6578. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  10. ^ "Serratia: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology". 11 November 2019. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  11. ^ a b Grimont, Francine; Grimont, Patrick A. D. (2006), Dworkin, Martin; Falkow, Stanley; Rosenberg, Eugene; Schleifer, Karl-Heinz (eds.), "The Genus Serratia", The Prokaryotes: Volume 6: Proteobacteria: Gamma Subclass, Springer, pp. 219–244, doi:10.1007/0-387-30746-x_11, ISBN 978-0-387-30746-6, retrieved 29 April 2020
  12. ^ Grimont, P. A. D. 1977. Le genre Ser­ratia. Taxonomie et approche ecolo­gique. PhD Thesis. Univ. Bordeaux I, France. 377 pp.
  13. ^ Kämpfer, Peter; Glaeser, Stefanie P. (2016-01). "Serratia aquatilis sp. nov., isolated from drinking water systems". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 66 (1): 407–413. doi:10.1099/ijsem.0.000731. ISSN 1466-5034. PMID 26537514. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  14. ^ Grimont, Patrick A. D.; Grimont, Francine; Starr, Mortimer P. (1 September 1981). "Serratia species isolated from plants". Current Microbiology. 5 (5): 317–322. doi:10.1007/BF01567926. ISSN 1432-0991.
  15. ^ George, Priya; Gupta, Alka; Gopal, Murali; Thomas, Litty; Thomas, George V. (2013-01). "Multifarious beneficial traits and plant growth promoting potential of Serratia marcescens KiSII and Enterobacter sp. RNF 267 isolated from the rhizosphere of coconut palms (Cocos nucifera L.)". World Journal of Microbiology & Biotechnology. 29 (1): 109–117. doi:10.1007/s11274-012-1163-6. ISSN 1573-0972. PMID 22948479. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  16. ^ Renoz, François; Pons, Inès; Vanderpoorten, Alain; Bataille, Gwennaël; Noël, Christine; Foray, Vincent; Pierson, Valentin; Hance, Thierry (1 July 2019). "Evidence for Gut-Associated Serratia symbiotica in Wild Aphids and Ants Provides New Perspectives on the Evolution of Bacterial Mutualism in Insects". Microbial Ecology. 78 (1): 159–169. doi:10.1007/s00248-018-1265-2. ISSN 1432-184X.
  17. ^ Singh, B. R.; Singh, Y.; Tiwari, A. K. (3 March 1997). "Characterisation of virulence factors of Serratia strains isolated from foods". International Journal of Food Microbiology. 34 (3): 259–266. doi:10.1016/S0168-1605(96)01196-8. ISSN 0168-1605.
  18. ^ Starr, M P; Grimont, P A; Grimont, F; Starr, P B (1976-09). "Caprylate-thallous agar medium for selectively isolating Serratia and its utility in the clinical laboratory". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 4 (3): 270–276. ISSN 0095-1137. PMID 972193. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  19. ^ Haddix, Pryce L.; Shanks, Robert M. Q. (2018-09). "Prodigiosin pigment of Serratia marcescens is associated with increased biomass production". Archives of Microbiology. 200 (7): 989–999. doi:10.1007/s00203-018-1508-0. ISSN 1432-072X. PMID 29616306. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  20. ^ Clements, T.; Ndlovu, T.; Khan, S.; Khan, W. (19 November 2018). "Biosurfactants produced by Serratia species: Classification, biosynthesis, production and application". Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 103 (2): 589–602. doi:10.1007/s00253-018-9520-5. ISSN 0175-7598.
  21. ^ Araújo, Hélvia W. C.; Andrade, Rosileide F. S.; Montero-Rodríguez, Dayana; Rubio-Ribeaux, Daylin; Alves da Silva, Carlos A.; Campos-Takaki, Galba M. (4 January 2019). "Sustainable biosurfactant produced by Serratia marcescens UCP 1549 and its suitability for agricultural and marine bioremediation applications". Microbial Cell Factories. 18. doi:10.1186/s12934-018-1046-0. ISSN 1475-2859. PMC 6318876. PMID 30609918.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  22. ^ Benedik, M. J., & Strych, U. (1998). Serratia marcescens and its extracellular nuclease. FEMS Microbiology Letters, 165(1), 1–13. doi: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.1998.tb13120.x
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  26. ^ Joshi, Sadhna; Kozlowski, Maya (1987), "Cloning of Serratia Liquefaciens Chitinase Gene(s)", Molecular genetics of plant-microbe interactions, Springer Netherlands, pp. 328–330, doi:10.1007/978-94-009-4482-4_83, ISBN 978-94-010-8496-3, retrieved 29 April 2020 {{citation}}: Check |url= value (help)
  27. ^ Fuchs, R. L.; McPherson, S. A.; Drahos, D. J. (1987), "Cloning and Expression of a Serratia Marcescens Gene Encoding Chitinase", Plant Pathogenic Bacteria, Springer Netherlands, pp. 478–478, doi:10.1007/978-94-009-3555-6_101, ISBN 978-94-010-8090-3, retrieved 29 April 2020 {{citation}}: Check |url= value (help)
  28. ^ Preobrazhenskaya, Yu. V.; Voskoboev, A. I.; Burd, V. N. (1 November 2003). "Hydrolysis of Phosphoester Bond by the Heme-Independent Chloroperoxidase from Serratia marcescens". Russian Journal of Bioorganic Chemistry. 29 (6): 556–559. doi:10.1023/B:RUBI.0000008896.40862.d6. ISSN 1573-9163.
  29. ^ Preiss, J; Crawford, K; Downey, J; Lammel, C; Greenberg, E (1976-07). "Kinetic properties of Serratia marcescens adenosine 5'-diphosphate glucose pyrophosphorylase". Journal of Bacteriology. 127 (1): 193–203. ISSN 0021-9193. PMID 6432. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  30. ^ Mahlen, Steven D. (2011-10). "Serratia Infections: from Military Experiments to Current Practice". Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 24 (4): 755–791. doi:10.1128/CMR.00017-11. ISSN 0893-8512. PMC 3194826. PMID 21976608. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  31. ^ "Serratia marcescens - Infectious Disease and Antimicrobial Agents". Retrieved 29 April 2020. {{cite web}}: no-break space character in |title= at position 9 (help)CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  32. ^ "Serratia: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology". 11 November 2019. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  33. ^ Martins, Hugo F G; Raposo, Alexandra; Baptista, Isabel; Almeida, Julio (30 November 2015). "Serratia marcescens osteomyelitis in Cushing's disease". BMJ Case Reports. 2015. doi:10.1136/bcr-2015-212872. ISSN 1757-790X. PMC 4680297. PMID 26621903.
  34. ^ Das, A. M.; Paranjape, V. L.; Pitt, T. L. (1988). "Serratia marcescens Infection Associated with Early Abortion in Cows and Buffaloes". Epidemiology and Infection. 101 (1): 143–149. ISSN 0950-2688.
  35. ^ a b c Bruton, B. D.; Mitchell, F.; Fletcher, J.; Pair, S. D.; Wayadande, A.; Melcher, U.; Brady, J.; Bextine, B.; Popham, T. W. (2003-08). "Serratia marcescens , a Phloem-Colonizing, Squash Bug -Transmitted Bacterium: Causal Agent of Cucurbit Yellow Vine Disease". Plant Disease. 87 (8): 937–944. doi:10.1094/PDIS.2003.87.8.937. ISSN 0191-2917. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
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