Peopling of Southeast Asia: Difference between revisions

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Further expansion on hunter gathering and wet-rice cultivation spread starting at 200BC.
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The most widespread migration event, was the [[Austronesian expansion]], which began at around 5,500 BP (3500 BC) from [[Taiwan]] and coastal southern [[China]]. Due to their early invention of ocean-going [[Outrigger boat|outrigger boats]] and voyaging [[Catamaran|catamarans]], Austronesians rapidly colonized [[Island Southeast Asia]], before spreading further into [[Micronesia]], [[Melanesia]], [[Polynesia]], [[Madagascar]] and the [[Comoros]].They dominated the lowlands and coasts of Island Southeast Asia, giving rise to modern [[Islander Southeast Asians]], [[Micronesian people|Micronesians]], [[Polynesians]], and [[Malagasy people|Malagasy]].<ref>{{cite web|author=|date=|title=THE AUSTRONESIAN SETTLEMENT OF MAINLAND SOUTHEAST ASIA|url=http://sealang.net/sala/archives/pdf4/blust1992austronesian.pdf|accessdate=2 January 2017|publisher=Sealang}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lipson|first1=Mark|last2=Loh|first2=Po-Ru|last3=Patterson|first3=Nick|last4=Moorjani|first4=Priya|last5=Ko|first5=Ying-Chin|last6=Stoneking|first6=Mark|last7=Berger|first7=Bonnie|last8=Reich|first8=David|date=19 August 2014|title=Reconstructing Austronesian population history in Island Southeast Asia|journal=Nature Communications|volume=5|pages=4689|bibcode=2014NatCo...5.4689L|doi=10.1038/ncomms5689|pmc=4143916|pmid=25137359}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=|date=|title=Austronesian Southeast Asia: An outline of contemporary issues|url=http://www.omnivoyage.org/Austronesian_SE_Asia.htm|accessdate=2 January 2017|publisher=Omnivoyage}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=|date=|title=Origins of Ethnolinguistic Identity in Southeast Asia|url=http://www.rogerblench.info/Archaeology/SE%20Asia/Blench%20Springer%20Handbook%20chapter%20final%20Dec%202014.pdf|accessdate=2 January 2017|publisher=Roger Blench}}</ref>
The most widespread migration event, was the [[Austronesian expansion]], which began at around 5,500 BP (3500 BC) from [[Taiwan]] and coastal southern [[China]]. Due to their early invention of ocean-going [[Outrigger boat|outrigger boats]] and voyaging [[Catamaran|catamarans]], Austronesians rapidly colonized [[Island Southeast Asia]], before spreading further into [[Micronesia]], [[Melanesia]], [[Polynesia]], [[Madagascar]] and the [[Comoros]].They dominated the lowlands and coasts of Island Southeast Asia, giving rise to modern [[Islander Southeast Asians]], [[Micronesian people|Micronesians]], [[Polynesians]], and [[Malagasy people|Malagasy]].<ref>{{cite web|author=|date=|title=THE AUSTRONESIAN SETTLEMENT OF MAINLAND SOUTHEAST ASIA|url=http://sealang.net/sala/archives/pdf4/blust1992austronesian.pdf|accessdate=2 January 2017|publisher=Sealang}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lipson|first1=Mark|last2=Loh|first2=Po-Ru|last3=Patterson|first3=Nick|last4=Moorjani|first4=Priya|last5=Ko|first5=Ying-Chin|last6=Stoneking|first6=Mark|last7=Berger|first7=Bonnie|last8=Reich|first8=David|date=19 August 2014|title=Reconstructing Austronesian population history in Island Southeast Asia|journal=Nature Communications|volume=5|pages=4689|bibcode=2014NatCo...5.4689L|doi=10.1038/ncomms5689|pmc=4143916|pmid=25137359}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=|date=|title=Austronesian Southeast Asia: An outline of contemporary issues|url=http://www.omnivoyage.org/Austronesian_SE_Asia.htm|accessdate=2 January 2017|publisher=Omnivoyage}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=|date=|title=Origins of Ethnolinguistic Identity in Southeast Asia|url=http://www.rogerblench.info/Archaeology/SE%20Asia/Blench%20Springer%20Handbook%20chapter%20final%20Dec%202014.pdf|accessdate=2 January 2017|publisher=Roger Blench}}</ref>

[[File:The proposed route of Austroasiatic and Austronesian migration into Indonesia and the geographic distribution of sites that have produced red-slipped and cord-marked pottery.png|thumb|The proposed route of Austroasiatic and Austronesian migration into Insular Southeast Asia during the Neolithic period.]]
Territorial principalities in both Insular and Mainland Southeast Asia, characterised as ''Agrarian kingdoms''<ref>{{cite book|author=J. Stephen Lansing|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f6H-kCvCCwgC&pg=PA22|title=Perfect Order: Recognizing Complexity in Bali|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-691-15626-2|page=22}}</ref> had by around 500 BCE developed an economy based on surplus crop cultivation and moderate coastal trade of domestic natural products. Several states of the Malayan-Indonesian "thalassian" zone<ref name="socev">{{cite book|author=F. Tichelman|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IGEyBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA41|title=The Social Evolution of Indonesia: The Asiatic Mode of Production and Its Legacy|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|year=2012|isbn=978-94-009-8896-5|page=41}}</ref> shared these characteristics with Indochinese polities like the [[Pyu city-states]] in the [[Irrawaddy river]] valley, [[Van Lang]] in the [[Red River delta]] and [[Funan (Southeast Asia)|Funan]] around the lower [[Mekong]].<ref name="funan" /> Văn Lang, founded in the 7th century BCE endured until 258 BCE under the rule of the [[Hồng Bàng dynasty]], as part of the [[Đông Sơn culture]] eventually sustained a dense and organised population, that produced an elaborate [[Bronze Age]] industry.<ref name="angk">{{cite web|author=|date=|title=Pre-Angkorian Settlement Trends in Cambodia's Mekong Delta and the Lower Mekong|url=http://www.anthropology.hawaii.edu/people/faculty/stark/pdfs/Stark_06_IPPA.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923172512/http://www.anthropology.hawaii.edu/people/faculty/stark/pdfs/Stark_06_IPPA.pdf|archive-date=23 September 2015|accessdate=11 February 2017|publisher=Anthropology.hawaii.edu}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=|date=|title=Early Mainland Southeast Asian Landscapes in the First Millennium|url=http://anthropology.hawaii.edu/People/Faculty/Stark/pdfs/annual_review_06.pdf|accessdate=12 February 2017|publisher=Anthropology.hawaii.edu}}</ref>
⚫
Another study (Chaubey 2015) found evidence for ancient gene flow from East Asian-related groups into the [[Andamanese|Andamanese people]], suggesting that Andamanese (Onge) had about 30% East Asian-related ancestry next to their original Negrito ancestry, though the authors also suggest that this latter finding may in fact reflect the genetic affinity of the Andamanese to Melanesian, Southeast Asian, and Asian Negrito populations rather than true East Asian admixture (stating that "The Han ancestry measured in Andaman Negrito is probably partially capturing both Melanesian and Malaysian Negrito ancestry"),<ref name="Chaubey 2015">{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322207974|title=East Asian ancestry in India|last=Chaubey|date=2015|website=|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=}}</ref> as a previous study by the authors (Chaubey et al.) indicated "a deep common ancestry" between Andamanese, Melanesians and other Negrito groups (as well as South Asians), and an affinity between Southeast Asian Negritos and Melanesians with East Asians.<ref name="Chaubey_and_Endicott">{{Cite journal|last1=Chaubey|first1=Gyaneshwer|last2=Endicott|first2=Phillip|date=2013-02-01|title=The Andaman Islanders in a regional genetic context: reexamining the evidence for an early peopling of the archipelago from South Asia|journal=Human Biology|volume=85|issue=1–3|pages=153–172|doi=10.3378/027.085.0307|issn=1534-6617|pmid=24297224|s2cid=7774927|url=https://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2055&context=humbiol}}</ref>

Intensive wet-rice cultivation in an ideal climate enabled the farming communities to produce a regular crop surplus, that was used by the ruling elite to raise, command and pay work forces for public construction and maintenance projects such as canals and fortifications.<ref name="angk" /><ref name="socev" /> Though millet and rice cultivation was introduced around 2000 BCE, hunting and gathering remained an important aspect of food provision, in particular in forested and mountainous inland areas.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hunt|first1=C.O.|last2=Rabett|first2=R.J.|date=November 2014|title=Holocene landscape intervention and plant food production strategies in island and mainland Southeast Asia|journal=Journal of Archaeological Science|volume=51|pages=22–33|doi=10.1016/j.jas.2013.12.011|doi-access=free}}</ref>[[File:The proposed route of Austroasiatic and Austronesian migration into Indonesia and the geographic distribution of sites that have produced red-slipped and cord-marked pottery.png|thumb|The proposed route of Austroasiatic and Austronesian migration into Insular Southeast Asia during the Neolithic period.]]
⚫
One study (Chaubey 2015) found evidence for ancient gene flow from East Asian-related groups into the [[Andamanese|Andamanese people]], suggesting that Andamanese (Onge) had about 30% East Asian-related ancestry next to their original Negrito ancestry, though the authors also suggest that this latter finding may in fact reflect the genetic affinity of the Andamanese to Melanesian, Southeast Asian, and Asian Negrito populations rather than true East Asian admixture (stating that "The Han ancestry measured in Andaman Negrito is probably partially capturing both Melanesian and Malaysian Negrito ancestry"),<ref name="Chaubey 2015">{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322207974|title=East Asian ancestry in India|last=Chaubey|date=2015|website=|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=}}</ref> as a previous study by the authors (Chaubey et al.) indicated "a deep common ancestry" between Andamanese, Melanesians and other Negrito groups (as well as South Asians), and an affinity between Southeast Asian Negritos and Melanesians with East Asians.<ref name="Chaubey_and_Endicott">{{Cite journal|last1=Chaubey|first1=Gyaneshwer|last2=Endicott|first2=Phillip|date=2013-02-01|title=The Andaman Islanders in a regional genetic context: reexamining the evidence for an early peopling of the archipelago from South Asia|journal=Human Biology|volume=85|issue=1–3|pages=153–172|doi=10.3378/027.085.0307|issn=1534-6617|pmid=24297224|s2cid=7774927|url=https://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2055&context=humbiol}}</ref>


A 2020 genetic study about Southeast Asian populations in 2020 (Liu et al. 2020), found that mostly all Southeast Asians are closely related to East Asians and have mostly "East Asian-related" ancestry. [[Austronesian peoples|Austronesian]] and [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic speaking populations]] of [[Southeast Asia]] were found to have mostly East Asian-related ancestry (89% to 96% (94% on average)) and minor [[Onge people|Onge-related]] ancestry (1% to 11%). [[Taiwanese indigenous peoples]] had on average 99% East Asian-related ancestry. [[Kra-Dai]] speaking populations had, similar to the Taiwanese indigenous peoples, nearly exclusively East Asian-related ancestry. Liu et al. 2020 additionally found again evidence for gene-flow from East Asian populations into the Andamanese (Onge). Andamanese (Onge) were modeled from two distinct components, one indigenous component at 55% and one East Asian component at 45% (Fig.8.C).<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Liu D, Duong NT, Ton ND, Van Phong N, Pakendorf B, Van Hai N, Stoneking M | title = Extensive ethnolinguistic diversity in Vietnam reflects multiple sources of genetic diversity | journal = Molecular Biology and Evolution | date = April 2020 | pmid = 32344428 | doi = 10.1093/molbev/msaa099 | url = https://academic.oup.com/mbe/advance-article/doi/10.1093/molbev/msaa099/5821431 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Fig.8. Admixture graph C|url=https://academic.oup.com/view-large/figure/208260505/msaa099f8.tif|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>
A 2020 genetic study about Southeast Asian populations in 2020 (Liu et al. 2020), found that mostly all Southeast Asians are closely related to East Asians and have mostly "East Asian-related" ancestry. [[Austronesian peoples|Austronesian]] and [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic speaking populations]] of [[Southeast Asia]] were found to have mostly East Asian-related ancestry (89% to 96% (94% on average)) and minor [[Onge people|Onge-related]] ancestry (1% to 11%). [[Taiwanese indigenous peoples]] had on average 99% East Asian-related ancestry. [[Kra-Dai]] speaking populations had, similar to the Taiwanese indigenous peoples, nearly exclusively East Asian-related ancestry. Liu et al. 2020 additionally found again evidence for gene-flow from East Asian populations into the Andamanese (Onge). Andamanese (Onge) were modeled from two distinct components, one indigenous component at 55% and one East Asian component at 45% (Fig.8.C).<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Liu D, Duong NT, Ton ND, Van Phong N, Pakendorf B, Van Hai N, Stoneking M | title = Extensive ethnolinguistic diversity in Vietnam reflects multiple sources of genetic diversity | journal = Molecular Biology and Evolution | date = April 2020 | pmid = 32344428 | doi = 10.1093/molbev/msaa099 | url = https://academic.oup.com/mbe/advance-article/doi/10.1093/molbev/msaa099/5821431 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Fig.8. Admixture graph C|url=https://academic.oup.com/view-large/figure/208260505/msaa099f8.tif|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref>

Revision as of 13:16, 20 November 2020

See Archaic humans in Southeast Asia for the earlier presence of archaic humans.

Southeast Asia was first reached by anatomically modern humans before 60,000 years ago, possibly before 70,000 years ago.[1] The oldest anatomically modern human fossil from Southeast Asia was found in Callao Cave, near Peñablanca, Cagayan, dated to 67,000 years old in 2010.[2]

Anatomically modern humans reached Southeast Asia in the course of the Southern Dispersal migration before the formation of a separate East Asian clade, at around 40,000 years ago.[3]

In Asia, the most recent late archaic human fossils were found in China (125-100 ka), the Philippines (58-24 ka), Malaysia (c. 40 ka), and Sri Lanka (c.36 ka).[4] The artifacts from these sites include partial skeleton, crania, deep skull, and other related skeletons indicate that modern human migrated to Asia earlier than the western theory might have discussed.[5]

In 2009, archaeologists discovered the partial cranium and some teeth of a modern human at Tam Pa Ling in mainland Laos, which shed light on the understanding of anatomically modern human migration and evolution in the region during the Late Pleistocene Period.[5] The site is located in Houaphanh Province, around 170 miles north of Vientiane, the capital city of modern Laos. Within this site, only human remains were found, and there is no evidence of human occupation or other artifacts. The radiocarbon dating of the charcoal and the sediment dating analyses identify the remains to date at least c. 56.5 ka, while the dental artifacts from the remains that analyzed by the isotope-ratio measurement indicate c. 63.6 ka.[5] The analysis of the cranium and dentition of the remains suggest that these are the remains of early modern human populations in Southeast Asia. This date is older than the fossils that were found in Niah cave in Malaysia, which offers another explanation for human evolution in Southeast Asia.

In addition to the discovery in Laos, there are also a number of human remains and related artifacts found across mainland Southeast Asia in which it suggests the new ideas of the regional Late Pleistocene development as well. More teeth and molars that were found in Thailand and Vietnam sites (Tham Wihan Naki, Thailand; Tham Kuyean, Vietnam, etc.) indicate transitions between H. erectus and H. sapiens.[6] In fact, these remains might indicate the possible interbreeding between H. erectus and H. sapiens, such as the tooth at Wihan Nakin at Chaiyaphum province in Thailand. [6]

The Neolithic was characterized by several migrations into Mainland and Island Southeast Asia from southern China by Austronesian, Austroasiatic, Kra-Dai and Hmong-Mien-speakers.[7]

The Austronesian Expansion(3500 BC to AD 1200)[8]

The most widespread migration event, was the Austronesian expansion, which began at around 5,500 BP (3500 BC) from Taiwan and coastal southern China. Due to their early invention of ocean-going outrigger boats and voyaging catamarans, Austronesians rapidly colonized Island Southeast Asia, before spreading further into Micronesia, Melanesia, Polynesia, Madagascar and the Comoros.They dominated the lowlands and coasts of Island Southeast Asia, giving rise to modern Islander Southeast Asians, Micronesians, Polynesians, and Malagasy.[9][10][11][12]

Territorial principalities in both Insular and Mainland Southeast Asia, characterised as Agrarian kingdoms[13] had by around 500 BCE developed an economy based on surplus crop cultivation and moderate coastal trade of domestic natural products. Several states of the Malayan-Indonesian "thalassian" zone[14] shared these characteristics with Indochinese polities like the Pyu city-states in the Irrawaddy river valley, Van Lang in the Red River delta and Funan around the lower Mekong.[15] Văn Lang, founded in the 7th century BCE endured until 258 BCE under the rule of the Hồng Bàng dynasty, as part of the Đông Sơn culture eventually sustained a dense and organised population, that produced an elaborate Bronze Age industry.[16][17]

Intensive wet-rice cultivation in an ideal climate enabled the farming communities to produce a regular crop surplus, that was used by the ruling elite to raise, command and pay work forces for public construction and maintenance projects such as canals and fortifications.[16][14] Though millet and rice cultivation was introduced around 2000 BCE, hunting and gathering remained an important aspect of food provision, in particular in forested and mountainous inland areas.[18]

The proposed route of Austroasiatic and Austronesian migration into Insular Southeast Asia during the Neolithic period.

One study (Chaubey 2015) found evidence for ancient gene flow from East Asian-related groups into the Andamanese people, suggesting that Andamanese (Onge) had about 30% East Asian-related ancestry next to their original Negrito ancestry, though the authors also suggest that this latter finding may in fact reflect the genetic affinity of the Andamanese to Melanesian, Southeast Asian, and Asian Negrito populations rather than true East Asian admixture (stating that "The Han ancestry measured in Andaman Negrito is probably partially capturing both Melanesian and Malaysian Negrito ancestry"),[19] as a previous study by the authors (Chaubey et al.) indicated "a deep common ancestry" between Andamanese, Melanesians and other Negrito groups (as well as South Asians), and an affinity between Southeast Asian Negritos and Melanesians with East Asians.[20]

A 2020 genetic study about Southeast Asian populations in 2020 (Liu et al. 2020), found that mostly all Southeast Asians are closely related to East Asians and have mostly "East Asian-related" ancestry. Austronesian and Austroasiatic speaking populations of Southeast Asia were found to have mostly East Asian-related ancestry (89% to 96% (94% on average)) and minor Onge-related ancestry (1% to 11%). Taiwanese indigenous peoples had on average 99% East Asian-related ancestry. Kra-Dai speaking populations had, similar to the Taiwanese indigenous peoples, nearly exclusively East Asian-related ancestry. Liu et al. 2020 additionally found again evidence for gene-flow from East Asian populations into the Andamanese (Onge). Andamanese (Onge) were modeled from two distinct components, one indigenous component at 55% and one East Asian component at 45% (Fig.8.C).[21][22]

See also

References

  1. ^ Rasmussen, M; Guo, X; Wang, Y (2011). "An Aboriginal Australian genome reveals separate human dispersals into Asia". Science. 334 (6052): 94-98. doi:10.1126/science.1211177. PMC 3991479. PMID 21940856. We show that Aboriginal Australians are descendants of an early human dispersal into eastern Asia, possibly 62,000 to 75,000 years ago. This dispersal is separate from the one that gave rise to modern Asians 25,000 to 38,000 years ago.
  2. ^ Severino, Howie (August 2, 2010). "Researchers discover fossil of human older than Tabon Man". GMA News Online. Retrieved 2019-12-22.
  3. ^ Lipson, Mark; Reich, David (2017). "A Working Model of the Deep Relationships of Diverse Modern Human Genetic Lineages Outside of Africa". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 34 (4): 889–902. doi:10.1093/molbev/msw293. PMC 5400393. PMID 28074030. The former [eastern clade] includes present-day East Asians and had differentiated as early as the ∼40 kya Tianyuan individual (Fu et al. 2013), while early members of the latter [western clade] include ancient European hunter-gatherers (Lazaridis et al. 2014; Seguin-Orlando et al. 2014; Fu et al. 2016) and the ancient northern Eurasian Mal'ta 1 (MA1, a ∼24 kya Upper Paleolithic individual from south-central Siberia) (Raghavan et al. 2014). More recent (Neolithic and later) western Eurasians, such as Europeans, are mostly descended from the western clade but with an additional component of "Basal Eurasian" ancestry (via the Near East) splitting more deeply than any other known non-African lineage (Lazaridis et al. 2014, 2016). The timing of the eastern/western split is uncertain, but several papers (Gutenkunst et al. 2009; Laval et al. 2010; Gravel et al. 2011) have used present-day European and East Asian populations to infer dates of initial separation of 40–45 kya (adjusted for a mutation rate of 0.5 × 10−9 per year; Scally 2016).
  4. ^ Barker, Graeme; Barton, Huw; Bird, Michael; Daly, Patrick; Datan, Ipoi; Dykes, Alan; Farr, Lucy; Gilbertson, David; Harrisson, Barbara (2007-03-01). "The 'human revolution' in lowland tropical Southeast Asia: the antiquity and behavior of anatomically modern humans at Niah Cave (Sarawak, Borneo)". Journal of Human Evolution. 52 (3): 243–261. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2006.08.011. PMID 17161859.
  5. ^ a b c Demeter, Fabrice; Shackelford, Laura L.; Bacon, Anne-Marie; Duringer, Philippe; Westaway, Kira; Sayavongkhamdy, Thongsa; Braga, José; Sichanthongtip, Phonephanh; Khamdalavong, Phimmasaeng (2012-09-04). "Anatomically modern human in Southeast Asia (Laos) by 46 ka". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 109 (36): 14375–14380. doi:10.1073/pnas.1208104109. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 3437904. PMID 22908291.
  6. ^ a b Marwick, Ben (2009-06-01). "Biogeography of Middle Pleistocene hominins in mainland Southeast Asia: A review of current evidence". Quaternary International. Great Arc of Human DispersalGreat Arc of Human Dispersal. 202 (1–2): 54–55. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2008.01.012.
  7. ^ Tarling, Nicholas (1999). The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Volume One, Part One. Cambridge University Press. p. 102. ISBN 978-0-521-66369-4.
  8. ^ Chambers, Geoffrey K. (2013). "Genetics and the Origins of the Polynesians". eLS. American Cancer Society. doi:10.1002/9780470015902.a0020808.pub2. ISBN 978-0-470-01590-2.
  9. ^ "THE AUSTRONESIAN SETTLEMENT OF MAINLAND SOUTHEAST ASIA" (PDF). Sealang. Retrieved 2 January 2017.
  10. ^ Lipson, Mark; Loh, Po-Ru; Patterson, Nick; Moorjani, Priya; Ko, Ying-Chin; Stoneking, Mark; Berger, Bonnie; Reich, David (19 August 2014). "Reconstructing Austronesian population history in Island Southeast Asia". Nature Communications. 5: 4689. Bibcode:2014NatCo...5.4689L. doi:10.1038/ncomms5689. PMC 4143916. PMID 25137359.
  11. ^ "Austronesian Southeast Asia: An outline of contemporary issues". Omnivoyage. Retrieved 2 January 2017.
  12. ^ "Origins of Ethnolinguistic Identity in Southeast Asia" (PDF). Roger Blench. Retrieved 2 January 2017.
  13. ^ J. Stephen Lansing (2012). Perfect Order: Recognizing Complexity in Bali. Princeton University Press. p. 22. ISBN 978-0-691-15626-2.
  14. ^ a b F. Tichelman (2012). The Social Evolution of Indonesia: The Asiatic Mode of Production and Its Legacy. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 41. ISBN 978-94-009-8896-5.
  15. ^ Cite error: The named reference funan was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  16. ^ a b "Pre-Angkorian Settlement Trends in Cambodia's Mekong Delta and the Lower Mekong" (PDF). Anthropology.hawaii.edu. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 September 2015. Retrieved 11 February 2017.
  17. ^ "Early Mainland Southeast Asian Landscapes in the First Millennium" (PDF). Anthropology.hawaii.edu. Retrieved 12 February 2017.
  18. ^ Hunt, C.O.; Rabett, R.J. (November 2014). "Holocene landscape intervention and plant food production strategies in island and mainland Southeast Asia". Journal of Archaeological Science. 51: 22–33. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2013.12.011.
  19. ^ Chaubey (2015). "East Asian ancestry in India".{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  20. ^ Chaubey, Gyaneshwer; Endicott, Phillip (2013-02-01). "The Andaman Islanders in a regional genetic context: reexamining the evidence for an early peopling of the archipelago from South Asia". Human Biology. 85 (1–3): 153–172. doi:10.3378/027.085.0307. ISSN 1534-6617. PMID 24297224. S2CID 7774927.
  21. ^ Liu D, Duong NT, Ton ND, Van Phong N, Pakendorf B, Van Hai N, Stoneking M (April 2020). "Extensive ethnolinguistic diversity in Vietnam reflects multiple sources of genetic diversity". Molecular Biology and Evolution. doi:10.1093/molbev/msaa099. PMID 32344428.
  22. ^ "Fig.8. Admixture graph C".{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
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