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'''''Staphylococcus pseudintermedius''''' is a coccus bacteria of the genus ''[[Staphylococcus]]''.<ref name=":4" /> It is primarily a [[pathogen]] for domestic animals<ref name="pmid21038805">{{cite journal | vauthors = Vincze S, Paasch A, Walther B, Ruscher C, Lübke-Becker A, Wieler LH, Barbara K | title = Multidrug- and methicillin resistant Staphylococcus pseudintermedius as a cause of canine pyoderma: a case report | journal = Berliner Und Munchener Tierarztliche Wochenschrift | volume = 123 | issue = 9-10 | pages = 353–8 | year = 2010 | pmid = 21038805 | doi = }}</ref>, but has been known to affect humans as well.<ref name="pmid27241371">{{cite journal | vauthors = Somayaji R, Priyantha MA, Rubin JE, Church D | title = Human infections due to Staphylococcus pseudintermedius, an emerging zoonosis of canine origin: report of 24 cases | journal = Diagnostic Microbiology and Infectious Disease | volume = 85 | issue = 4 | pages = 471–6 | date = August 2016 | pmid = 27241371 | doi = 10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2016.05.008 }}</ref>''S. pseudintermedius'' is an opportunistic pathogen that secretes immune modulating virulence factors, has many adhesion factors, and the potential to create [[Biofilm|biofilms]], all of which help to determine the pathogenicity of the bacterium.<ref name=":1">{{cite journal | vauthors = Pompilio A, De Nicola S, Crocetta V, Guarnieri S, Savini V, Carretto E, Di Bonaventura G | title = New insights in Staphylococcus pseudintermedius pathogenicity: antibiotic-resistant biofilm formation by a human wound-associated strain | journal = BMC Microbiology | volume = 15 | pages = 109 | date = May 2015 | pmid = 25994406 | pmc = 4440327 | doi = 10.1186/s12866-015-0449-x }}</ref><ref name="Garbacz_2013">{{cite journal | vauthors = Garbacz K, Zarnowska S, Piechowicz L, Haras K | title = Pathogenicity potential of Staphylococcus pseudintermedius strains isolated from canine carriers and from dogs with infection signs | journal = Virulence | volume = 4 | issue = 3 | pages = 255–9 | date = April 2013 | pmid = 23328490 | doi = 10.4161/viru.23526 }}</ref>
'''''Staphylococcus pseudintermedius''''' is a coccus bacteria of the genus ''[[Staphylococcus]]''.<ref name=":4" /> It is primarily a [[pathogen]] for domestic animals<ref name="pmid21038805">{{cite journal | vauthors = Vincze S, Paasch A, Walther B, Ruscher C, Lübke-Becker A, Wieler LH, Barbara K | title = Multidrug- and methicillin resistant Staphylococcus pseudintermedius as a cause of canine pyoderma: a case report | journal = Berliner Und Munchener Tierarztliche Wochenschrift | volume = 123 | issue = 9-10 | pages = 353–8 | year = 2010 | pmid = 21038805 | doi = }}</ref>, but has been known to affect humans as well.<ref name="pmid27241371">{{cite journal | vauthors = Somayaji R, Priyantha MA, Rubin JE, Church D | title = Human infections due to Staphylococcus pseudintermedius, an emerging zoonosis of canine origin: report of 24 cases | journal = Diagnostic Microbiology and Infectious Disease | volume = 85 | issue = 4 | pages = 471–6 | date = August 2016 | pmid = 27241371 | doi = 10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2016.05.008 }}</ref>''S. pseudintermedius'' is an opportunistic pathogen that secretes immune modulating virulence factors, has many adhesion factors, and the potential to create [[Biofilm|biofilms]], all of which help to determine the pathogenicity of the bacterium.<ref name=":1">{{cite journal | vauthors = Pompilio A, De Nicola S, Crocetta V, Guarnieri S, Savini V, Carretto E, Di Bonaventura G | title = New insights in Staphylococcus pseudintermedius pathogenicity: antibiotic-resistant biofilm formation by a human wound-associated strain | journal = BMC Microbiology | volume = 15 | pages = 109 | date = May 2015 | pmid = 25994406 | pmc = 4440327 | doi = 10.1186/s12866-015-0449-x }}</ref><ref name="Garbacz_2013">{{cite journal | vauthors = Garbacz K, Zarnowska S, Piechowicz L, Haras K | title = Pathogenicity potential of Staphylococcus pseudintermedius strains isolated from canine carriers and from dogs with infection signs | journal = Virulence | volume = 4 | issue = 3 | pages = 255–9 | date = April 2013 | pmid = 23328490 | doi = 10.4161/viru.23526 }}</ref>

== Epidemiology ==
In dogs, ''S. pseudintermedius'' is normally found on the microflora of the skin<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Davis|first=J. A.|last2=Jackson|first2=C. R.|last3=Fedorka‐Cray|first3=P. J.|last4=Barrett|first4=J. B.|last5=Brousse|first5=J. H.|last6=Gustafson|first6=J.|last7=Kucher|first7=M.|date=2014|title=Carriage of methicillin-resistant staphylococci by healthy companion animals in the US|url=https://sfamjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/lam.12254|journal=Letters in Applied Microbiology|language=en|volume=59|issue=1|pages=1–8|doi=10.1111/lam.12254|issn=1472-765X}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|last=Somayaji|first=Ranjani|last2=Rubin|first2=Joseph E|last3=Priyantha|first3=Madalagama AR|last4=Church|first4=Deirdre|date=2016-10-01|title=Exploring Staphylococcus pseudintermedius: an emerging zoonotic pathogen?|url=https://www.futuremedicine.com/doi/full/10.2217/fmb-2016-0137|journal=Future Microbiology|volume=11|issue=11|pages=1371–1374|doi=10.2217/fmb-2016-0137|issn=1746-0913}}</ref>. The presence of ''S. pseudintermedius''has been observed in higher amounts on dogs that suffer from atopic dermatitis<ref name=":16" />. It is also one of the leading causes of bacterial skin and soft tissue infections<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Gagetti|first=Paula|last2=Wattam|first2=Alice R.|last3=Giacoboni|first3=Gabriela|last4=De Paulis|first4=Adriana|last5=Bertona|first5=Eugenia|last6=Corso|first6=Alejandra|last7=Rosato|first7=Adriana E.|date=2019-07-27|title=Identification and molecular epidemiology of methicillin resistant Staphylococcus pseudintermedius strains isolated from canine clinical samples in Argentina|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-019-1990-x|journal=BMC Veterinary Research|volume=15|issue=1|pages=264|doi=10.1186/s12917-019-1990-x|issn=1746-6148|pmc=PMC6660709|pmid=31351494}}</ref><ref name=":16" />, such as [[pyoderma]], [[Urinary tract infection|urinary tract infections]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Couto|first=Natacha|last2=Monchique|first2=Cláudia|last3=Belas|first3=Adriana|last4=Marques|first4=Cátia|last5=Gama|first5=Luís T.|last6=Pomba|first6=Constança|date=2016-06-01|title=Trends and molecular mechanisms of antimicrobial resistance in clinical staphylococci isolated from companion animals over a 16 year period|url=https://academic.oup.com/jac/article/71/6/1479/1751542|journal=Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy|language=en|volume=71|issue=6|pages=1479–1487|doi=10.1093/jac/dkw029|issn=0305-7453}}</ref>, and surgical site infections<ref name=":17" /><ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|last=Pires dos Santos|first=Teresa|last2=Damborg|first2=Peter|last3=Moodley|first3=Arshnee|last4=Guardabassi|first4=Luca|date=2016|title=Systematic Review on Global Epidemiology of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus pseudintermedius: Inference of Population Structure from Multilocus Sequence Typing Data|url=https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmicb.2016.01599/full#F4|journal=Frontiers in Microbiology|language=English|volume=7|doi=10.3389/fmicb.2016.01599|issn=1664-302X}}</ref>. It is also known to infect cats, although not as common<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kadlec|first=Kristina|last2=Schwarz|first2=Stefan|last3=Perreten|first3=Vincent|last4=Grönlund Andersson|first4=Ulrika|last5=Finn|first5=Maria|last6=Greko|first6=Christina|last7=Moodley|first7=Arshnee|last8=Kania|first8=Stephen A.|last9=Frank|first9=Linda A.|last10=Bemis|first10=David A.|last11=Franco|first11=Alessia|date=2010-08-01|title=Molecular analysis of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus pseudintermedius of feline origin from different European countries and North America|url=https://academic.oup.com/jac/article/65/8/1826/742803|journal=Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy|language=en|volume=65|issue=8|pages=1826–1828|doi=10.1093/jac/dkq203|issn=0305-7453}}</ref>. It is transferred by animal-animal contact, and some dog-human [[Zoonosis|zoonoses]] have also been reported<ref name=":03">{{Cite web|last=Bannoehr J. and Guardabassi L.|first=|date=2012|title=Staphylococcus pseudintermedius in the dog: taxonomy, diagnostics, ecology, epidemiology and pathogenicity|url=https://cas.usask.ca/cas/login?service=https%3a%2f%2flogin.cyber.usask.ca%2flogin%3fqurl%3dezp.2aHR0cHM6Ly9vbmxpbmVsaWJyYXJ5LndpbGV5LmNvbS9kb2kvZnVsbC8xMC4xMTExL2ouMTM2NS0zMTY0LjIwMTIuMDEwNDYueA--|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-09-11|website=cas.usask.ca|doi=10.1111/j.1365-3164.2012.01046.x}}</ref>. Transmission is done either [[Vertically transmitted infection|vertically]] or [[Horizontal transmission|horizontally]]<ref name=":03" />. The overall prevalence of ''S. pseudintermedius'' in small animals is increasing every year<ref name=":19">{{Cite journal|last=Eckholm|first=Nicole G.|last2=Outerbridge|first2=Catherine A.|last3=White|first3=Stephen D.|last4=Sykes|first4=Jane E.|date=2013|title=Prevalence of and risk factors for isolation of meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus spp. from dogs with pyoderma in northern California, USA|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-3164.2012.01051.x|journal=Veterinary Dermatology|language=en|volume=24|issue=1|pages=154–e34|doi=10.1111/j.1365-3164.2012.01051.x|issn=1365-3164}}</ref>, specifically in small animals worldwide<ref name=":17" />.

''S. pseudintermedius'' is becoming a threat due to its [[Homogeneity and heterogeneity|heterogeneous]] qualities<ref>{{Citation|last=Garbacz|first=K.|title=Heterogeneity of methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus pseudintermedius strains isolated from diseased dogs|date=2011|url=http://journals.pan.pl/dlibra/show-content?id=98936&|publisher=Polish Academy of Sciences Committee of Veterinary Sciences|access-date=2020-11-28|last2=Piechowicz|first2=L.|last3=Żarnowska|first3=S.|last4=Haras|first4=K.|last5=Dąbrowska-Szponar|first5=M.}}</ref> and multi-drug resistance [[phenotype]]<ref name=":18" /><ref name=":19" />. Methicillin-resistant ''S. pseudintermedius'' (MRSP) has five major clonal complexe (CC) lineages<ref name=":18" />, each with their own unique traits regarding genetic diversity, geographical distribution and [[antimicrobial resistance]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Osland|first=Ane Mohr|last2=Vestby|first2=Lene K.|last3=Fanuelsen|first3=Hanne|last4=Slettemeås|first4=Jannice Schau|last5=Sunde|first5=Marianne|date=2012-04-01|title=Clonal diversity and biofilm-forming ability of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus pseudintermedius|url=https://academic.oup.com/jac/article/67/4/841/860745|journal=Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy|language=en|volume=67|issue=4|pages=841–848|doi=10.1093/jac/dkr576|issn=0305-7453}}</ref><ref name=":18" />. The majority of all MRSP isolates were found in Europe and Asia, with North America, South America, and Oceania contributing only a small portion<ref name=":18" />. The CC71 and CC258 lineages were mostly seen in Europe, CC68 was mostly seen in North America, and CC45 and CC112 seen in Asia<ref name=":18" />. The top three antimicrobials worldwide that MRSP is found to be resistant to are [[Erythromycin|erythromycin,]] [[clindamycin]], and [[tetracycline]]<ref name=":18" />.

When looking at the epidemiology of the ''Staphylococcus intermedius'' group (SIG), which includes ''S. pseudintermedius, S. intermedius,'' and ''S. delphini'', it is noted that in humans most of the recorded cases were above the age of 50, [[Diabetes|diabetic]], and/or [[immunocompromised]] in some way<ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Yarbrough|first=Melanie L.|last2=Lainhart|first2=William|last3=Burnham|first3=Carey-Ann D.|date=2018-03-01|title=Epidemiology, Clinical Characteristics, and Antimicrobial Susceptibility Profiles of Human Clinical Isolates of Staphylococcus intermedius Group|url=https://jcm.asm.org/content/56/3/e01788-17|journal=Journal of Clinical Microbiology|language=en|volume=56|issue=3|doi=10.1128/JCM.01788-17|issn=0095-1137|pmid=29305548}}</ref>. Most of the cultures came from wound sites and respiratory specimens<ref name=":20" />. ''S. pseudintermedius'' is not normally found within the microflora of humans<ref name=":03" />. Humans that work in close proximity to animals are at higher risk of ''S. pseudintermedius'' infections, such as [[Veterinarian|veterinarians]], animal trainers, and [[Zookeeper|zookeepers]]<ref name=":03" />. Although the risk of pet owners becoming infected by their pets is low, there have been reported cases<ref name=":21">{{Cite journal|last=Kmieciak|first=Wioletta|last2=Szewczyk|first2=Eligia Maria|date=2018|title=Are zoonotic Staphylococcus pseudintermedius strains a growing threat for humans?|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6182621/|journal=Folia Microbiologica|volume=63|issue=6|pages=743–747|doi=10.1007/s12223-018-0615-2|issn=0015-5632|pmc=6182621|pmid=29804274}}</ref>.


== Pathogenicity and virulence ==
== Pathogenicity and virulence ==

Revision as of 19:07, 28 November 2020

Staphylococcus pseudintermedius
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Bacteria
Phylum:
Firmicutes
Class:
Bacilli
Order:
Bacillales
Family:
Staphylococcaceae
Genus:
Staphylococcus
Species:
S. pseudintermedius
Binomial name
Staphylococcus pseudintermedius
Devriese et al. 2005

Staphylococcus pseudintermedius is a coccus bacteria of the genus Staphylococcus.[1] It is primarily a pathogen for domestic animals[2], but has been known to affect humans as well.[3]S. pseudintermedius is an opportunistic pathogen that secretes immune modulating virulence factors, has many adhesion factors, and the potential to create biofilms, all of which help to determine the pathogenicity of the bacterium.[4][5]

Epidemiology

In dogs, S. pseudintermedius is normally found on the microflora of the skin[6][7]. The presence of S. pseudintermediushas been observed in higher amounts on dogs that suffer from atopic dermatitis[7]. It is also one of the leading causes of bacterial skin and soft tissue infections[8][7], such as pyoderma, urinary tract infections[9], and surgical site infections[8][10]. It is also known to infect cats, although not as common[11]. It is transferred by animal-animal contact, and some dog-human zoonoses have also been reported[12]. Transmission is done either vertically or horizontally[12]. The overall prevalence of S. pseudintermedius in small animals is increasing every year[13], specifically in small animals worldwide[8].

S. pseudintermedius is becoming a threat due to its heterogeneous qualities[14] and multi-drug resistance phenotype[10][13]. Methicillin-resistant S. pseudintermedius (MRSP) has five major clonal complexe (CC) lineages[10], each with their own unique traits regarding genetic diversity, geographical distribution and antimicrobial resistance[15][10]. The majority of all MRSP isolates were found in Europe and Asia, with North America, South America, and Oceania contributing only a small portion[10]. The CC71 and CC258 lineages were mostly seen in Europe, CC68 was mostly seen in North America, and CC45 and CC112 seen in Asia[10]. The top three antimicrobials worldwide that MRSP is found to be resistant to are erythromycin, clindamycin, and tetracycline[10].

When looking at the epidemiology of the Staphylococcus intermedius group (SIG), which includes S. pseudintermedius, S. intermedius, and S. delphini, it is noted that in humans most of the recorded cases were above the age of 50, diabetic, and/or immunocompromised in some way[16]. Most of the cultures came from wound sites and respiratory specimens[16]. S. pseudintermedius is not normally found within the microflora of humans[12]. Humans that work in close proximity to animals are at higher risk of S. pseudintermedius infections, such as veterinarians, animal trainers, and zookeepers[12]. Although the risk of pet owners becoming infected by their pets is low, there have been reported cases[17].

Pathogenicity and virulence

As previously described, Staphylococcus pseudintermedius, an opportunistic pathogen, is a part of the normal microbiome of skin and mucous membranes in animals.[18] Animals acquire this bacteria through vertical transmission. The strain of S. pseudintermedius colonizing the mother's vaginal mucous membrane is transferred during birth and becomes a part of the offspring's microbiome.[18]A compromised immune system or tissue injury allows this bacteria to push past host defences and create an infection.[18] We then seen clinical manifestations such as purulent dermatitis, otitis externa, conjunctivitis [19], urinary tract infections [18], and post-operative infections[20]. Disease is most commonly seen in dogs and cats[18][20] with canine pyoderma being the most notable manifestation of S. pseudintermedius[21].

The virulence of S. pseudintermedius is an area of on going research and has many unknowns.[22]The virulence factors carried by S. pseudintermedius vary between strains and do not determine if the bacteria will cause an infection. Rather, infection is a result of an animal's immune status[1], environment, and genetics.[23]

Numerous virulence factors such as enzymes, toxins, and binding proteins have been associated with S. pseudintermedius strains. These include proteases, thermonucleases, coagulases,[22] DNAase, lipase, hemolysin, clumping factor, leukotoxin, enterotoxin,[24] protein A, and exfoliative toxin.[22]

Immune modulating virulence factors

Haemolysins, leukotoxins, exfoliative toxins, and enterotoxins are secreted[25] from the bacteria to modulate the host's immune response.[5]

The pore-forming cytotoxins, α-hemolysin and β-hemolysin, lyse erythrocytes of sheep and rabbits.[25][1] Leukotoxin destroys host leukocytes and causes tissue necrosis.[5] Exfoliative toxin is responsible for the majority of symptoms seen in canine pyoderma[22] and otitis i.e. skin exfoliation and crusting[5]. Exfoliative toxin causes vesicle formation and erosion in epithelial cells resulting in splitting of the skin.[1] Super-antigens such as enterotoxins activate host immune cells causing T cell proliferation and cytokine release.[5] This virulence factor induces vomiting and has been associated with food posioning in humans. [5] Protein A, an immunoglobulin binding protein, has been found on the surface of S. pseudintermedius.[1] Protein A attaches to the Fc region of host antibodies, rendering them useless. Without the Fc region, the host immune system cannot recognize that antibody; the complement system cannot be activated and phagocytes cannot destroy the bacteria.[5][22]

Virulence factors for dissemination and adhesion

The previously mentioned protein A as well as clumping factor are surface proteins that allow the bacteria to bind to host cells.[25][5] S. pseudintermedius has been found to produce biofilms, an extracellular matrix of protein, DNA, and polysaccharide, which aids the bacteria in avoiding the host immune system and resisting drugs.[24] Biofilms allow the bacteria to persist on medical equipment even after disinfection and adhere to host cells, a component of chronic infections.[24] Fragments of a biofilm can break off and disseminate to other sites in the body, spreading infection.[5] Quorum sensing, a mechanism that coordinates the bacteria's colonization efforts, has been reported in some strains. [25] Coagulase, lipase, and DNAase produced by the bacteria also aid in its dissemination throughout the host body.[5].

References

  1. ^ a b c d e González-Martín M, Corbera JA, Suárez-Bonnet A, Tejedor-Junco MT (December 2020). "Staphylococcus aureus". The Veterinary Quarterly. 40 (1): 118–131. doi:10.1080/01652176.2020.1748253. PMC 7178840. PMID 32223696.
  2. ^ Vincze S, Paasch A, Walther B, Ruscher C, Lübke-Becker A, Wieler LH, Barbara K (2010). "Multidrug- and methicillin resistant Staphylococcus pseudintermedius as a cause of canine pyoderma: a case report". Berliner Und Munchener Tierarztliche Wochenschrift. 123 (9–10): 353–8. PMID 21038805.
  3. ^ Somayaji R, Priyantha MA, Rubin JE, Church D (August 2016). "Human infections due to Staphylococcus pseudintermedius, an emerging zoonosis of canine origin: report of 24 cases". Diagnostic Microbiology and Infectious Disease. 85 (4): 471–6. doi:10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2016.05.008. PMID 27241371.
  4. ^ Pompilio A, De Nicola S, Crocetta V, Guarnieri S, Savini V, Carretto E, Di Bonaventura G (May 2015). "New insights in Staphylococcus pseudintermedius pathogenicity: antibiotic-resistant biofilm formation by a human wound-associated strain". BMC Microbiology. 15: 109. doi:10.1186/s12866-015-0449-x. PMC 4440327. PMID 25994406.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Garbacz K, Zarnowska S, Piechowicz L, Haras K (April 2013). "Pathogenicity potential of Staphylococcus pseudintermedius strains isolated from canine carriers and from dogs with infection signs". Virulence. 4 (3): 255–9. doi:10.4161/viru.23526. PMID 23328490.
  6. ^ Davis, J. A.; Jackson, C. R.; Fedorka‐Cray, P. J.; Barrett, J. B.; Brousse, J. H.; Gustafson, J.; Kucher, M. (2014). "Carriage of methicillin-resistant staphylococci by healthy companion animals in the US". Letters in Applied Microbiology. 59 (1): 1–8. doi:10.1111/lam.12254. ISSN 1472-765X.
  7. ^ a b c Somayaji, Ranjani; Rubin, Joseph E; Priyantha, Madalagama AR; Church, Deirdre (2016-10-01). "Exploring Staphylococcus pseudintermedius: an emerging zoonotic pathogen?". Future Microbiology. 11 (11): 1371–1374. doi:10.2217/fmb-2016-0137. ISSN 1746-0913.
  8. ^ a b c Gagetti, Paula; Wattam, Alice R.; Giacoboni, Gabriela; De Paulis, Adriana; Bertona, Eugenia; Corso, Alejandra; Rosato, Adriana E. (2019-07-27). "Identification and molecular epidemiology of methicillin resistant Staphylococcus pseudintermedius strains isolated from canine clinical samples in Argentina". BMC Veterinary Research. 15 (1): 264. doi:10.1186/s12917-019-1990-x. ISSN 1746-6148. PMC 6660709. PMID 31351494.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  9. ^ Couto, Natacha; Monchique, Cláudia; Belas, Adriana; Marques, Cátia; Gama, Luís T.; Pomba, Constança (2016-06-01). "Trends and molecular mechanisms of antimicrobial resistance in clinical staphylococci isolated from companion animals over a 16 year period". Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 71 (6): 1479–1487. doi:10.1093/jac/dkw029. ISSN 0305-7453.
  10. ^ a b c d e f g Pires dos Santos, Teresa; Damborg, Peter; Moodley, Arshnee; Guardabassi, Luca (2016). "Systematic Review on Global Epidemiology of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus pseudintermedius: Inference of Population Structure from Multilocus Sequence Typing Data". Frontiers in Microbiology. 7. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2016.01599. ISSN 1664-302X.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  11. ^ Kadlec, Kristina; Schwarz, Stefan; Perreten, Vincent; Grönlund Andersson, Ulrika; Finn, Maria; Greko, Christina; Moodley, Arshnee; Kania, Stephen A.; Frank, Linda A.; Bemis, David A.; Franco, Alessia (2010-08-01). "Molecular analysis of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus pseudintermedius of feline origin from different European countries and North America". Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 65 (8): 1826–1828. doi:10.1093/jac/dkq203. ISSN 0305-7453.
  12. ^ a b c d Bannoehr J. and Guardabassi L. (2012). "Staphylococcus pseudintermedius in the dog: taxonomy, diagnostics, ecology, epidemiology and pathogenicity". cas.usask.ca. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3164.2012.01046.x. Retrieved 2020-09-11.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  13. ^ a b Eckholm, Nicole G.; Outerbridge, Catherine A.; White, Stephen D.; Sykes, Jane E. (2013). "Prevalence of and risk factors for isolation of meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus spp. from dogs with pyoderma in northern California, USA". Veterinary Dermatology. 24 (1): 154–e34. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3164.2012.01051.x. ISSN 1365-3164.
  14. ^ Garbacz, K.; Piechowicz, L.; Żarnowska, S.; Haras, K.; Dąbrowska-Szponar, M. (2011), Heterogeneity of methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus pseudintermedius strains isolated from diseased dogs, Polish Academy of Sciences Committee of Veterinary Sciences, retrieved 2020-11-28
  15. ^ Osland, Ane Mohr; Vestby, Lene K.; Fanuelsen, Hanne; Slettemeås, Jannice Schau; Sunde, Marianne (2012-04-01). "Clonal diversity and biofilm-forming ability of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus pseudintermedius". Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 67 (4): 841–848. doi:10.1093/jac/dkr576. ISSN 0305-7453.
  16. ^ a b Yarbrough, Melanie L.; Lainhart, William; Burnham, Carey-Ann D. (2018-03-01). "Epidemiology, Clinical Characteristics, and Antimicrobial Susceptibility Profiles of Human Clinical Isolates of Staphylococcus intermedius Group". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 56 (3). doi:10.1128/JCM.01788-17. ISSN 0095-1137. PMID 29305548.
  17. ^ Kmieciak, Wioletta; Szewczyk, Eligia Maria (2018). "Are zoonotic Staphylococcus pseudintermedius strains a growing threat for humans?". Folia Microbiologica. 63 (6): 743–747. doi:10.1007/s12223-018-0615-2. ISSN 0015-5632. PMC 6182621. PMID 29804274.
  18. ^ a b c d e Bannoehr J. and Guardabassi L. (2012). "Staphylococcus pseudintermedius in the dog: taxonomy, diagnostics, ecology, epidemiology and pathogenicity". cas.usask.ca. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3164.2012.01046.x. Retrieved 2020-09-11.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  19. ^ Katarzyna Garbacz, Sabina Żarnowska, Lidia Piechowicz & Krystyna Haras (2012). "Pathogenicity potential of Staphylococcus pseudintermedius strains isolated from canine carriers and from dogs with infection signs". Virulence. 4 – via Taylor and Francis Online.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  20. ^ a b Pompilio, Arianna; De Nicola, Serena; Crocetta, Valentina; Guarnieri, Simone; Savini, Vincenzo; Carretto, Edoardo; Di Bonaventura, Giovanni (2015-05-21). "New insights in Staphylococcus pseudintermedius pathogenicity: antibiotic-resistant biofilm formation by a human wound-associated strain". BMC Microbiology. 15. doi:10.1186/s12866-015-0449-x. ISSN 1471-2180. PMC 4440327. PMID 25994406.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  21. ^ Bajwa, Jangi (2016). "Canine superficial pyoderma and therapeutic considerations". The Canadian Veterinary Journal = La Revue Veterinaire Canadienne. 57 (2): 204–206. ISSN 0008-5286. PMC 4713004. PMID 26834275.
  22. ^ a b c d e Ross Fitzgerald J. (2009). "The Staphylococcus intermedius group of bacterial pathogens: species re‐classification, pathogenesis and the emergence of meticillin resistance". Veterinary Dermatology. 20 – via Wiley Online Library.
  23. ^ Bajwa J (February 2016). "Canine superficial pyoderma and therapeutic considerations". The Canadian Veterinary Journal = La Revue Veterinaire Canadienne. 57 (2): 204–6. PMC 4713004. PMID 26834275.
  24. ^ a b c Pompilio A, De Nicola S, Crocetta V, Guarnieri S, Savini V, Carretto E, Di Bonaventura G (May 2015). "New insights in Staphylococcus pseudintermedius pathogenicity: antibiotic-resistant biofilm formation by a human wound-associated strain". BMC Microbiology. 15: 109. doi:10.1186/s12866-015-0449-x. PMC 4440327. PMID 25994406.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  25. ^ a b c d Bannoehr J. and Guardabassi L. (2012). "Staphylococcus pseudintermedius in the dog: taxonomy, diagnostics, ecology, epidemiology and pathogenicity". cas.usask.ca. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3164.2012.01046.x. Retrieved 2020-09-11.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)

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