Gotong royong
Gotong-royong is a conception of sociality familiar to large parts of Indonesia and Malaysia. The phrase has been translated into English in many ways, most of which harken to the conception of reciprocity or mutual aid. For M. Nasroen, gotong royong forms one of the core tenets of Indonesian philosophy. Paul Michael Taylor and Lorraine V. Aragon state that "gotong royong [is] cooperation among many people to attain a shared goal."[1]
Background
In a 1983 essay Clifford Geertz points to the importance of gotong royong in Indonesian life:
An enormous inventory of highly specific and often quite intricate institutions for effecting the cooperation in work, politics, and personal relations alike, vaguely gathered under culturally charged and fairly well indefinable value-images--rukun ("mutual adjustment"), gotong royong ("joint bearing of burdens"), tolong-menolong ("reciprocal assistance")--governs social interaction with a force as sovereign as it is subdued.[2]
Anthropologist Robert A. Hahn writes:
Javanese culture is stratified by social class and by level of adherence to Islam. ...Traditional Javanese culture does not emphasize material wealth. ...There is respect for those who contribute to the general village welfare over personal gain. And the spirit of gotong royong, or volunteerism, is promoted as a cultural value.[3]
Gotong royong has long functioned as the scale of the village, as a moral conception of the political economy. However, as the political economy became more privatized, capitalistic, and individualistic, gotong royong has probably waned.[citation needed] Pottier records the impact of the Green Revolution in Java: "Before the GR, 'Java' had relatively 'open' markets, in which many local people were rewarded in kind. With the GR, rural labour markets began to foster 'exclusionary practices'... This resulted in a general loss of rights, especially secure harvesting rights within a context of mutual cooperation, known as gotong royong." Citing Ann Stoler's ethnography from the 1970s, Pottier writes that that cash was replacing exchange, that old patron-client ties were breaking, and that social relations were becoming characterized more by employer-employee qualities.[4]
Political appropriation
For Prime Minister Muhammad Natsir, gotong royong was an ethical principle of sociality, in marked contrast to both the "unchecked" feudalism of the West, and the social anomie of capitalism.[5]
Ideas of reciprocity, ancient and deeply enmeshed aspects of kampung morality, were seized upon by postcolonial politicians. John Sidel writes: "Ironically, national-level politicians drew on " village conceptions of adat and gotong royong. They drew on notions "of traditional community to justify new forms of authoritarian rule." [6]
During the presidency of Sukarno, the idea of gotong royong was officially elevated to a central tenet of Indonesian life. For Sukarno, the new nation was to be synonymous with gotong royong. He said that the Pancasila could be reduced to the idea of gotong royong. On June 1, 1945, Sukarno said of the Pancasila:
The first two principles, nationalism and internationalism, can be pressed to one, which I used to call 'socionationalism.' Similarly with democracy 'which is not the democracy of the West' together with social justice for all can be pressed down to one, and called socio democracy. Finally - belief in God. 'And so what originally was five has become three: socio nationalism, socio democracy, and belief in God.' 'If I press down five to get three, and three to get one, then I have a genuine Indonesian term - GOTONG ROYONG [mutual co-operation]. The state of Indonesia which we are to establish should be a state of mutual co-operation. How fine that is ! A Gotong Royong state![7]
In 1960, Sukarno dissolved the elected parliament and implemented the Gotong Royong Parliament.
Governor of Jakarta, Ali Sadikin, spoke of a desire to reinvigorate urban areas with village sociality, with gotong royong.[8]
Suharto's New Order was characterized by much discourse about tradition. During the New Order, Siskamling harnessed the idea of gotong royong. By the 1990s, if not sooner, gotong royong had been "fossilized" by New Order sloganeering.[9]
During the presidency of Megawati, the Gotong Royong Cabinet was implemented. It lasted from 2001-4.
See also
- Bayanihan, a Filipino concept of mutual aid, possibly linked to gotong royong.
- Dugnad (Norwegian)
- Meitheal (Irish)
- Naffir (Sudanese Arabic
- Talkoot (Finnish)
- Gadugi (Cherokee)
- Gotong royong (Indonesia and Malaysia)
References
- ^ Paul Michael Taylor, Lorraine V. Aragon, Curators of Asian Ethnology at the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History (1991), Beyond the Java Sea: Art of Indonesia's Outer Islands Abrams ISBN 0-8109-3112-5 p. 10.
- ^ Geertz, Clifford. "Local Knowledge: Fact and Law in Comparative Perspective," pp. 167-234 in Geertz Local Knowledge: Further Essays in Interpretive Anthropology, NY: Basic Books. 1983.
- ^ Hahn, Robert A. Anthropology in Public Health: Bridging Differences in Culture and Society Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. 1999.
- ^ Pottier, Johan. Anthropology of Food: The Social Dynamics of Food Security Oxford, UK: Blackwell. 1999. p. 84.
- ^ Natsir, Muhammad. "The Indonesian Revolution." In Kurzman, Charles Liberal Islam: A Sourcebook, p. 62. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. 1998.
- ^ Sidel, John Thayer. Riots, Pogroms, Jihad: Religious Violence in Indonesia, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. p. 32. 2006.
- ^ ["Bung Karno" http://www.antenna.nl/wvi/eng/ic/pki/sal/salim.html]
- ^ Kusno, Abidin. 2003. Behind the Postcolonial: Architecture, Urban Space and Political Cultures. NY: Routledge. p. 152.
- ^ Benedict Anderson. Language and Power: Exploring Political Cultures in Indonesia. Ithaca, NY: Cornell UP. 1990, p. 148.
Bibliography
- Bowen, John R. "On the Political Construction of Tradition: Gotong Royong in Indonesia," Journal of Asian Studies, 45, no. 3 (May 1986), 545-561.
- Nasroen, M. Jefri(1967). Falsafah Indonesia. Jakarta: Penerbit Bulan Bintang.