Indiscriminate attack
In international humanitarian law and international criminal law, an indiscriminate attack is a military attack that fails to distinguish between military objectives and protected (civilian) objects. Indiscriminate attacks strike both military and protected objects alike, thus violating the principle of distinction between combatants and civilians. They differ from direct (or deliberate) attacks against civilians and encompass cases in which the perpetrators are indifferent as to the nature of the target, cases in which the perpetrators use tactics or weapons that are inherently indiscriminate (e.g., cluster munitions, anti-personnel mines, nuclear weapons), and cases in which the attack is disproportionate, because it is likely to cause excessive civilian casualties and damages to protected objects.
Indiscriminate attacks are prohibited both by the Geneva Conventions Additional Protocol I (1977) and by customary international law. They constitute a war crime under the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, and the perpetrators can be prosecuted and held responsible in international and domestic courts.
Concept
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1994-041-07%2C_Dresden%2C_zerst%C3%B6rtes_Stadtzentrum.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1994-041-07%2C_Dresden%2C_zerst%C3%B6rtes_Stadtzentrum.jpg)
Indiscriminate attacks are military attacks that neglect the distinction between legitimate military targets, on the one side, and persons and objects that enjoy protection under international humanitarian law, on the other.[1]
Protected objects include civilians and civilian objects that do not make an effective contribution to military action and whose destruction does not offer a definite military advantage.[2] Protected objects under international humanitarian law include also objects indispensable to the survival of the civilian population, cultural objects and places of worship, undefended towns, villages, dwellings, or building,[3] works and installations containing dangerous forces, such as nuclear plants, dams and dikes, and the natural environment, which should not be exposed to widespread, long-term, and severe damage.[4]
Indiscriminate attacks strike miliary objects and protected objects alike, thus violating the principle of distinction between combatants and civilians.[note 1] Contrary to direct attacks against civilian objects, where the attacker is deliberately trying to hit a civilian object (e.g. to spread terror and break the morale of the population), indiscriminate attacks imply that the attacker is indifferent as to whether the targets are military or not[5] and conducts the operation without regard for any effect it may have on the civilians.[6] Essential to the notion of indiscriminate attack is the state of mind of the attacker, which must be assessed taking into account the so-called fog of war, that is, that the information available at the time of the attack might have been faulty or incomplete.[7]
The notion of indiscriminate attack is defined in Article 51 Geneva Conventions Additional Protocol I (1977).[note 2] Indiscriminate attacks are engaged in by employing either tactics or weapons that are indiscriminate, and by launching attacks that are disproportionate.
Examples of the first kind include releasing bombs over enemy territory in the hope of incidentally striking a military objective,[1] firing blindly without ensuring that the target is of military nature, conducting air strikes in situations of limited sight, launching an attack with imprecise weapons against a military objective that is closely surrounded by civilian objects,[5] and using inherently indiscriminate weapons such as cluster munitions and anti-personnel landmines without taking necessary precautions.[8] Also the use of nuclear weapons, while not being as such prohibited under current customary international law, will usually violate the ban on indiscriminate attacks.[9]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Stop_cluster_bombs_march.jpg/220px-Stop_cluster_bombs_march.jpg)
Indiscriminate attacks also include attacks that violate the proportionality rule:[10] the so-called disproportionate attacks.[11] In the past, once an attack was aimed at a military objective, any inevitable harm caused to civilians and civilian objects was accepted as "collateral damage".[12] Under current international humanitarian law, however, attacks against a legitimate military objective that lead to collateral damages are subject to the principle of proportionality:[10][13][14] losses to the civilian population and damage to civilian objects must not be "excessive in relation to the concrete and direct military advantage anticipated" from the attack, as stated in Article 51 Protocol I. This basic principle is expressed also in Article 57.[note 3]
Legal status in international and national law
The prohibition of indiscriminate attacks is set forth in Article 51(4) and (5) of Additional Protocol I[note 2] and is generally considered a norm of customary international law.[15][16] While Protocol I is applicable only in international armed conflict and only to the signatory states of that international treaty, the prohibition of indiscriminate attacks as a rule of customary international law is applicable in both international and non-international armed conflicts (civil wars)[11][17][18] and is also applicable to states that are not party to Additional Protocol I, such as India and the United States.[16] The prohibition of indiscriminate attacks can also be construed as a necessary consequence of the principle of distinction between combatants and civilians.[19] The principle of distinction belongs to customary international law and justifies a number of analogous rules including prohibitions or limitations on starvation, sieges, and reprisals against civilians, civilian objects, and other protected persons and objects.[14]
The prohibition of indiscriminate attacks is established in numerous national military manuals as well as supported by official statements and reported practice; to carry out such attacks is a criminal offence under the legislation of several countries[16]
Indiscriminate attacks are also defined and punished as a war crime under the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court.[note 4]
History
Before World War II
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/111-SC-42835_-_NARA_-_55244871_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-111-SC-42835_-_NARA_-_55244871_%28cropped%29.jpg)
The reasons behind the prohibition of indiscriminate attacks were already spelled out by one of the founders of international law, Francisco de Vitoria. A passage of his "Second Relectio on the Indians, or on the Law of War" (1532) can be read as an anticipation of the modern principle of proportionality:[20]
[If] little effect upon the ultimate issue of the war is to be expected from the storming of a fortress (...) wherein are many innocent folk, it would not be right, for the purpose of assailing a few guilty, to slay the many innocent by use of fire or engines of war or other means likely to overwhelm indifferently both innocent and guilty.
— Francisco de Vitoria, De Indis De Jure Belli, Part 3
In modern times, the first attempt at codifying a general prohibition of indiscriminate attacks were the 1923 Hague Rules of Air Warfare, which never came into force.[12][21] They were drafted under the impression of World War I, where recourse to aerial bombing of cities had first become widespread. Strategic bombing by German forces using airships (such as the Zeppelin raids over England and during the siege of Antwerp) and long-range artillery (the "Big Bertha" cannon) raised the issue of how to contain indiscriminate military attacks. The Hague Rules proposed that in cases where the military targets "are so situated, that they cannot be bombarded without the indiscriminate bombardment of the civilian population, the aircraft must abstain from bombardment."[22] While supported by United States and Japan, the Hague Rules were rejected by France and the United Kingdom. At the 1932 World Disarmament Conference, the British government argued that limitations to aerial warfare should not apply to colonies: as Lloyd George declared, "we insisted on reserving the right to bomb niggers".[23][22]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Bloody_Saturday%2C_Shanghai.jpg/220px-Bloody_Saturday%2C_Shanghai.jpg)
Before World War II, the deadliest indiscriminate attacks occurred outside Europe, in the Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935-1936) and in the Japanese invasion of Manchuria (1931-1932) and China (1937-1945). However, it was only with the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939), as consequence of the bombing of Madrid, Guernica and other cities, that indiscriminate bombing of civilian populations first came to the attention of Western audiences.[22] Notwithstanding the efforts by the ICRC and the drafting of the 1938 Convention for the Protection of Civilian Populations Against New Engines of War, which never became legally binding, World War II broke out in the absence of an international regime prohibiting indiscriminate attacks.[22] The basic provision limiting aerial warfare was set forth in the 1907 Fourth Hague Convention, and forbade any bombardment of undefended towns, but allowed bombardment of defended towns, or towns that were under attack on the ground.[24] According to international law of the time, "indiscriminate bombing of a defended city or a defended area [was] permissible", as the District Court of Tokyo exposed in Ryuichi Shimoda v. The State (1963).[25]
World War II and aftermath
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/After_Bombing_of_Tokyo_on_March_1945_19450310.jpg/220px-After_Bombing_of_Tokyo_on_March_1945_19450310.jpg)
At the onset of the war, Franklin D. Roosevelt attempted to mitigate this situation by launching an Appeal to the Belligerents to Refrain from the Bombing of Open Towns. The Appeal was accepted by the German, French and British governments[22][26] and proved to be quite effective in practice, as during World War II it remained on option to declare a city "open", abandon all defensive efforts and avoid bombing, as it happened in Paris, Brussels, Rome, Athens and elsewhere.[27] However, the vast majority of cities were defended and subjected to heavy fire during the war; Heinrich Himmler declared that "No German city will be declared an open city" and hundreds of thousands of civilians died as consequence of massing bombing during the six years of the conflict.[27] Both the Axis powers and the Allies carried out carpet bombings during the war, such as the attacks on Guernica, Wieluń, Rotterdam, Warsaw, London, Coventry and on Shanghai and Chongqing, on the one side, and the attacks on Cologne, Berlin, Hamburg, Dresden and on several Japanese cities including Tokyo, on the other.[28][29] Under current international humanitarian law, most of these bombings would probably qualify as deliberate attacks on civilians rather than as indiscriminate attacks, as they were conducted with the explicit intention of targeting "morale".[30]
In the last 12 months of the war, the German army introduced the paradigmatic case of indiscriminate weapon: the so-called "flying bombs" or "V-weapons" (V-1 flying bomb, V-2 rockets and V-3 cannon). These long-range ballistic missiles could not be directed at a specific military objective but were pointed in the general direction of large metropolitan areas;[5][7] they "could hardly hit a particular city, let alone a specific point within them".[31] Equally indiscriminate but less effective were the Japanese Fu-Go incendiary balloons – the first intercontinental weapon.[31] The deadliest indiscriminate weapons used during World War II were by far the atomic bombs detonated by the United States over Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
After the war, the German and Japanese leaderships were not pursued for deliberate and indiscriminate attacks on the civilian populations. Their bombing campaigns had arguably been paralleled or surpassed by those carried out by the Allies, and in the Nuremberg and Tokyo indictments no attempt was made to frame indiscriminate attacks as war crimes.[32][33][34] During the negotiations of the 1949 Geneva convention, protection of civilians was a controversial subject, and the British representatives opposed any restriction to the freedom to carry out bombing – at the time, both France and the United Kingdom were starting to use bombing as a "policing measure" in the revolting colonies.[32] Between II World War II and 1977 heavy bombings were inflicted by the French in Madagascar during the Malagasy Uprising (1947-1949) and in Algeria during the war of independence (1954-1962), by the British in Kenya during the Mau Mau rebellion (1953-1956)[35] and in Malaya during the national liberation war (1948-1960), by the US-led United Nations forces in Korea (1950-1953), by the United States in Vietnam, especially during Operation Linebacker II (1972).[36]
The 1977 Additional Protocol I to the Geneva conventions
A general prohibition of indiscriminate attack was established in the 1977 Additional Protocol I. During the diplomatic conference for the drafting of Protocol I, the possibility was referred to of distinguishing the rules applicable to the aggressor from the rules applicable to the victim of the aggression, but several delegations opposed the proposal, which was eventually rejected by the conference.[37] The diplomatic conference attached great importance to the prohibitions of deliberate and indiscriminate attacks on civilians set forth in Article 51, as is shown by the fact that Article 51 is one of the provisions to which no reservations can be made, and by the fact that its violation is qualified as a "grave breach" amounting to a war crime under Article 85.[38]
As of 2022, Protocol I has been ratified by 174 states,[39] with the notable exceptions of India, Iran, Israel, Pakistan, Thailand and the United States. However, the practice of indiscriminate attack continued during the Indonesian occupation of East Timor (1975-1979), the Salvadoran Civil War (1979-1992), as part of the Arab-Israeli conflict (with the Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel, the bombing of Lebanon in July 1981 and the siege of Beirut in 1982).[40] Indiscriminate attacks, and occasionally also deliberate attacks on civilians, were particularly deadly during the Soviet-Afghanistan war: the bombing of Herat alone is said to have killed 20,000 people.[40] In the 1980s and 1990s, indiscriminate attacks were recorded in the "war of the cities" (1984-1988) during the Iran-Iraq war, in the battle of Kabul (1992–1996), in the first Nagorno-Karabakh war between Armenia and Azerbaijan, and in the first and second Chechen war, with the devastating sieges of Grozny in 1994-1995 and 1999-2000.[40]
From the Gulf War onwards
The 1991 Gulf War and the wars of the former Yugoslavia, including Kosovo, have been regarded as the first attempts to avoid indiscriminate damage in the operations of war; the use of smart bombs was instrumental to that end.[40] Although bombings during the Gulf War destroyed critical infrastructures in Iraq leading to tens of thousands of civilians deaths, the war was widely celebrated for the "most discriminate air campaign in history",[41] with relatively few Iraqi civilians (around 3,000) directly killed by the bombings.[42]
At the times of the Gulf War, many legal scholars doubted that Protocol I codified customary international law and was therefore binding upon the United States, which had not signed the convention.[43] Human Rights Watch published a report arguing that "many of the Protocol’s provisions", including the prohibition of disproportionate and other indiscriminate attacks, "reaffirm, clarify or otherwise codify pre-existing customary law restraints on methods and means of combat and, thus, are binding on all nations regardless of ratification".[44]
The 2009 Gaza war marked by indiscriminate use of rockets by the Palestinians and by indiscriminate airstrikes from the Israeli Defence Forces, as documented in the UN Goldstone report.[40]
During the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Russia has repeatedly carried out indiscriminate attacks in densely populated areas.[45][46][47]
Notes
- ^ Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I), 8 June 1977.
Article 48. Basic rule
In order to ensure respect for and protection of the civilian population and civilian objects, the Parties to the conflict shall at all times distinguish between the civilian population and combatants and between civilian objects and military objectives and accordingly shall direct their operations only against military objectives. - ^ a b Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I), 8 June 1977.
Article 51. Protection of the civilian population (...)
4. Indiscriminate attacks are prohibited. Indiscriminate attacks are:
(a) those which are not directed at a specific military objective;
(b) those which employ a method or means of combat which cannot be directed at a specific military objective; or
(c) those which employ a method or means of combat the effects of which cannot be limited as required by this Protocol; and consequently, in each such case, are of a nature to strike military objectives and civilians or civilian objects without distinction.
5. Among others, the following types of attacks are to be considered as indiscriminate:
(a) an attack by bombardment by any methods or means which treats as a single military objective a number of clearly separated and distinct military objectives located in a city, town, village or other area containing a similar concentration of civilians or civilian objects; and
(b) an attack which may be expected to cause incidental loss of civilian life, injury to civilians, damage to civilian objects, or a combination thereof, which would be excessive in relation to the concrete and direct military advantage anticipated. - ^ Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I), 8 June 1977.
Article 57. Precautions in attack (...)
2. With respect to attacks, the following precautions shall be taken:
(a) those who plan or decide upon an attack shall: (...)
(ii) take all feasible precautions in the choice of means and methods of attack with a view to avoiding, and in any event to minimizing, incidental loss of civilian life, injury to civilians and damage to civilian objects;
(iii) refrain from deciding to launch any attack which may be expected to cause incidental loss of civilian life, injury to civilians, damage to civilian objects, or a combination thereof, which would be excessive in relation to the concrete and direct military advantage anticipated;
(b) an attack shall be cancelled or suspended if it becomes apparent that the objective is not a military one or is subject to special protection or that the attack may be expected to cause incidental loss of civilian life, injury to civilians, damage to civilian objects, or a combination thereof, which would be excessive in relation to the concrete and direct military advantage anticipated;
3. When a choice is possible between several military objectives for obtaining a similar military advantage, the objective to be selected shall be that the attack on which may be expected to cause the least danger to civilian lives and to civilian objects. - ^
Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, adopted 17 July 1998, entered in to force 1 July 2002.
Article 8. War crimes (...)
2. For the purpose of this Statute, "war crimes" means:(...)
(b) (...) (iv) Intentionally launching an attack in the knowledge that such attack will cause incidental loss of life or injury to civilians or damage to civilian objects or widespread, long-term and severe damage to the natural environment which would be clearly excessive in relation to the concrete and direct overall military advantage anticipated; (...)
(xx) Employing weapons, projectiles and material and methods of warfare which are of a nature to cause superfluous injury or unnecessary suffering or which are inherently indiscriminate in violation of the international law of armed conflict, provided that such weapons, projectiles and material and methods of warfare are the subject of a comprehensive prohibition and are included in an annex to this Statute, by an amendment in accordance with the relevant provisions set forth in articles 121 and 123; (...)
References
- ^ a b Schmitt 2020, p. 152.
- ^ Ambos 2014, p. 150-151.
- ^ Ambos 2014, p. 152.
- ^ "Protected Objects and Property". The Practical Guide to Humanitarian Law.
- ^ a b c Bell & Pfeiffer 2011.
- ^ Schmitt 2014, p. 153.
- ^ a b Dinstein 2004, p. 118.
- ^ Sassòli 2019, §§8.391-8.397.
- ^ Werle & Jessberger 2020, §1533.
- ^ a b Sassòli 2019, §§8.6.1.
- ^ a b Moneta 2015.
- ^ a b Dinstein 2004, p. 117.
- ^ Werle & Jessberger 2020, §1402.
- ^ a b Schmitt 2020, p. 153.
- ^ "Customary IHL - Rule 11. Indiscriminate Attacks". ICRC, Customary IHL Database. Retrieved 2022-06-19.
- ^ a b c "Customary IHL - Rule 12. Definition of Indiscriminate Attacks". ICRC, Customary IHL Database. Retrieved 2022-08-01.
- ^ Sassòli 2019, §8.319.
- ^ Ponti 2015, p. 120.
- ^ Sassòli 2019, §7.59.
- ^ Meron, Theodor (1992). "Shakespeare's Henry the Fifth and the Law of War". The American Journal of International Law. 86 (1). American Society of International Law: 24–25. JSTOR 2203137. Retrieved 2022-08-15.
- ^ Gillespie 2011, pp. 17–20.
- ^ a b c d e Gillespie 2011, pp. 20–24.
- ^ "Britain's Empire: Resistance, Repression and Revolt by Richard Gott – review". the Guardian. 2011-12-07. Retrieved 2022-08-06.
- ^ Newman 1995, p. 121.
- ^ Wikisource:Ryuichi Shimoda et al. v. The State I. Evaluation of the act of bombing according to international law: Paragraph 5.
- ^ Jochnick & Normand 2017, p. 86.
- ^ a b Gillespie 2011, pp. 24–35.
- ^ Sassòli 2019, para. 2.13.
- ^ Solis 2010, p. 537.
- ^ Jochnick & Normand 2017, pp. 86–89.
- ^ a b Gillespie 2011, p. 32.
- ^ a b Gillespie 2011, pp. 36–37.
- ^ Heller 2011, p. 298.
- ^ Jochnick & Normand 2017, p. 91-95.
- ^ Lindqvist 2002, para. 261, 282-284.
- ^ Gillespie 2011, pp. 37–39.
- ^ Pilloud et al. 1987, para. 1928.
- ^ Pilloud et al. 1987, para. 1930-33.
- ^ "Treaties, States parties, and Commentaries - States Parties - Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I), 8 June 1977". ihl-databases.icrc.org. Retrieved 2022-08-16.
- ^ a b c d e Gillespie 2011, pp. 42–51.
- ^ "Department of Defense Report to Congress on the Conduct of the Persian Gulf War". casebook.icrc.org. 1992. Retrieved 2022-08-18.
- ^ Jones 2020, pp. 117–118.
- ^ Alexander 2015, p. 128.
- ^ "PART I:THE LEGAL STANDARDS". NEEDLESS DEATHS IN THE GULF WAR. Civilian Casualties During the Air Campaign and Violations of the Laws of War (Report). Human Rights Watch. 1991. Retrieved 2022-08-18.
- ^ "Ukraine: "Anyone can die at any time": Indiscriminate attacks by Russian forces in Kharkiv, Ukraine". Amnesty International. Archived from the original on 2022-06-18. Retrieved 2022-06-19.
- ^ "Ukraine: Deadly Attacks Kill, Injure Civilians, Destroy Homes". Human Rights Watch. 18 March 2022. Archived from the original on 4 April 2022. Retrieved 27 March 2022.
- ^ The situation of human rights in Ukraine in the context of the armed attack by the Russian Federation, 24 February to 15 May 2022 (Report). OHCHR. 29 June 2022. para. 27-28, 38, 135. Archived from the original on 2 July 2022. Retrieved 9 August 2022.
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{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Schmitt, Michael N. (2014). "Air Warfare". In Clapham, Andrew; Gaeta, Paola (eds.). The Oxford handbook of international law in armed conflict. Oxford, United Kingdom. pp. 118–144. doi:10.1093/law/9780199559695.003.0006. ISBN 978-0-19-955969-5. OCLC 869726495.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Schmitt, Michael N. (2020). "International Humanitarian Law and the Conduct of Hostilities". In Saul, Ben; Akande, Dapo (eds.). The Oxford guide to international humanitarian law. Oxford, United Kingdom. pp. 147–174. ISBN 978-0-19-259748-9. OCLC 1153294179.
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: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Shue, Henry (2016). "Proportionality in War". Fighting Hurt: Rule and Exception in Torture and War. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198767626.003.0016.
- Solis, Gary D. (2010). The law of armed conflict: international humanitarian law in war. Cambridge [Eng]: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-87088-7. OCLC 423389334.
- van der Wilt, Harmen (2020-10-29). "Towards a Better Understanding of the Concept of 'Indiscriminate Attack'—How International Criminal Law Can Be of Assistance". Yearbook of International Humanitarian Law, Volume 22 (2019). The Hague: T.M.C. Asser Press. pp. 29–42. doi:10.1007/978-94-6265-399-3_2. ISBN 978-94-6265-398-6. ISSN 1389-1359.
- Werle, Gerhard; Jessberger, Florian (2020). Principles of international criminal law. Oxford, United Kingdom. ISBN 978-0-19-882685-9. OCLC 1153298354.
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: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)