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{{ infobox building |
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| building_name = Parthenon |
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| native_building_name= Παρθενών {{gr icon}} |
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| image = Parthenon-2008.jpg |
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| caption = The Parthenon |
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| former_names = The Parthenon |
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| map_type = |
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| building_type = Temple |
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| architectural_style = [[Classical architecture|Classical]] |
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| structural_system = |
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| cost = |
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| location = [[Athens]], [[Greece]] |
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| address = |
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| client = |
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| owner = [[Politics of Greece|Greek government]] |
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| current_tenants = [[Museum]] |
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| landlord = |
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| coordinates = {{coord|37|58|17.39|N|23|43|35.69|E|display=inline,title|type:landmark_region:GR_scale:2000}} |
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| start_date = 447 BC |
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| completion_date = 432 BC |
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| inauguration_date = |
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| demolition_date = |
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| destruction_date = Partly on 26 September 1687 |
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| height = |
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| diameter = 69.5 m x 30.9 m (228.0 x 101.4 ft)<br />incl. [[cella]]: 29.8 m x 19.2 m (97.8 x 63.0 ft) |
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| other_dimensions = |
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| floor_count = |
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| floor_area = |
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| main_contractor = |
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| architect = [[Iktinos]], [[Kallikrates]] |
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| structural_engineer = [[Phidias]] |
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| services_engineer = |
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| civil_engineer = |
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| other_designers = |
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| quantity_surveyor = |
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| awards = |
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| references = |
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}} |
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The '''Parthenon''' ([[Ancient Greek]]: {{polytonic|Παρθενών}}) is a [[Greek temple|temple]] of the [[Greek gods|Greek goddess]] [[Athena]], built in the 5th century BC on the [[Acropolis of Athens|Athenian Acropolis]]. It is the most important surviving building of [[Classical Greece]], generally considered to be the culmination of the development of the [[Doric order]]. Its decorative sculptures are considered one of the high points of [[Art in Ancient Greece|Greek art]]. The Parthenon is regarded as an enduring symbol of [[ancient Greece]] and of [[Athenian democracy]], and one of the world's greatest cultural monuments. The [[Minister for Culture (Greece)|Greek Ministry of Culture]] is currently carrying out a program of restoration and reconstruction.<ref name="venieri-acropolis">{{cite web|url=http://odysseus.culture.gr/h/3/eh351.jsp?obj_id=2384 |title=Acropolis of Athens |author=Ioanna Venieri |publisher=Hellenic Ministry of Culture |accessdate=2007-05-04}}</ref> |
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The Parthenon replaced an older temple of Athena, which historians call the Pre-Parthenon or [[Older Parthenon]], that was destroyed in the [[Greco-Persian wars|Persian invasion]] of 480 BC. Like most Greek temples, the Parthenon was used as a [[treasury]], and for a time served as the treasury of the [[Delian League]], which later became the [[Athenian Empire]]. In the 6th century AD, the Parthenon was converted into a [[History of Christianity#Church of the Early Middle Ages (476–800)|Christian]] [[Church (building)|church]] dedicated to the [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Virgin Mary]]. After the [[Ottoman Greece|Ottoman conquest]], it was converted into a [[mosque]] in the early 1460s, and it had a [[minaret]] built in it. On 26 September 1687 an Ottoman ammunition dump inside the building was ignited by [[Republic of Venice|Venetian]] bombardment. The resulting explosion severely damaged the Parthenon and its sculptures. In 1806, [[Thomas Bruce, 7th Earl of Elgin]] removed some of the surviving sculptures, with Ottoman permission. These sculptures, now known as the [[Elgin Marbles|Elgin]] or [[Parthenon Marbles]], were sold in 1816 to the [[British Museum]] in [[London]], where they are now displayed. The Greek government is committed to the return of the sculptures to Greece, so far with no success.{{Fact|date=July 2008}} |
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==Design and construction== |
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[[Image:Parthenon from south.jpg|thumb|The Parthenon from the south. In the foreground of the image, a reconstruction of the marble [[imbrex and tegula|imbrices and tegulae]] (roof tiles) forming the roof is visible, resting on wooden supports.]] |
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The first endeavor to build a sanctuary for [[Athena#Athena Parthenos: Virgin Athena|Athena Parthenos]] on the site of the present Parthenon was begun shortly after the [[Battle of Marathon]] (c. 490-488 BC) upon a muscular [[limestone]] foundation that extended and leveled the southern part of the Acropolis summit. This building replaced a hekatompedon (meaning "hundred-footer") and would have stood beside the archaic temple dedicated to the Athena Polias. The [[Older Parthenon|Older or Pre-Parthenon]], as it is frequently referred to, was still under construction when the [[Persian Empire|Persians]] sacked the city in 480 BC and razed the Acropolis.<ref>Hurwit, ''The Parthenon and the Temple of Zeus'', 135<br/> Venieri, [http://odysseus.culture.gr/h/3/eh351.jsp?obj_id=2384 Acropolis of Athens - History]</ref> |
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In the mid-5th century BC, when the Athenian Acropolis became the seat of the [[Delian League]] and Athens was the greatest cultural centre of its time, Pericles initiated an ambitious building project which lasted the entire second half of the century. The most important buildings visible on the Acropolis today{{ndash}} the Parthenon, the Propylaia, the Erechtheion and the temple of Athena Nike{{ndash}} were erected during this period. The Parthenon was built under the general supervision of the sculptor [[Phidias]], who also had charge of the sculptural decoration. The [[architect]]s, [[Iktinos]] and [[Kallikrates]], began in 447 BC, and the building was substantially completed by 432, but work on the decorations continued until at least 431. Some of the financial accounts for the Parthenon survive and show that the largest single expense was transporting the stone from [[Mount Pentelicus]], about 16 kilometres from Athens, to the Acropolis. The funds were partly drawn from the treasury of the Delian League, which was moved from the Panhellenic sanctuary at [[Delos]] to the Acropolis in 454 BC. |
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Although the nearby [[Temple of Hephaestus]] is the most complete surviving example of a [[Doric order]] temple, the Parthenon, in its day, was regarded as the finest. The temple, wrote [[John Julius Cooper, 2nd Viscount Norwich|John Julius Norwich]], "Enjoys the reputation of being the most perfect [[Doric temple]] ever built. Even in antiquity, its architectural refinements were legendary, especially the subtle correspondence between the curvature of the [[stylobate]], the taper of the [[naos (architecture)|naos]] walls and the ''[[entasis]]'' of the columns."<ref>John Julius Norwich, ''Great Architecture of the World'', 2001, p.63</ref><!-- If we must have this quote let's at least get it right. --> ''Entasis'' refers to the slight bulge of the columns as they rise, though the observable effect on the Parthenon is considerably more subtle than on earlier temples with their noticeably cigar-shaped columns. The stylobate is the platform on which the columns stand. As in many other classical Greek temples,<ref>And in the surviving foundations of the preceding Older Parthenon (Penrose, ''Principles of Athenian Architecture'' 2nd ed. ch. II.3, plate 9).</ref> it has a slight parabolic upward curvature intended primarily to shed rainwater. The columns might therefore be supposed to lean outwards, but they actually lean slightly inwards; and since they are all the same height, the curvature of the outer stylobate edge is transmitted to the [[architrave]] and roof above: "all follow the rule of being built to delicate curves" Gorham Stevens observed when pointing out that in addition, the west front was built at a slightly higher level than that of the east front.<ref>Penrose ''op. cit.'' pp 32-34, found the difference motivated by economies of labour; Gorham P. Stevens, "Concerning the Impressiveness of the Parthenon" ''American Journal of Archaeology'' '''66'''.3 (July 1962:337-338).</ref> It is not universally agreed what the intended effect of these 'optical refinements' was; it is often suggested that it was to enliven what might have appeared an inert mass in the case of a building without curves, but the comparison ought to be with the Parthenon's more obviously curved predecessors than with a notional rectilinear temple. |
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Some studies of the Acropolis, including the Parthenon, conclude that many of its proportions approximate the [[golden ratio]]. The Parthenon's facade as well as elements of its facade and elsewhere can be circumscribed by [[golden rectangle]]s.<ref>Van Mersbergen, Audrey M., "Rhetorical Prototypes in Architecture: Measuring the Acropolis", ''Philosophical Polemic Communication Quarterly'', Vol. 46, 1998.</ref> This view that the golden ratio was employed in the design has been disputed in more recent studies.<ref>See e.g. {{citejournal|author=George Markowsky|url=http://www.math.nus.edu.sg/aslaksen/teaching/maa/markowsky.pdf|format=PDF|title=Misconceptions about the Golden Ratio|journal=The College Mathematics Journal|volume=Volume 23|issue=No 1|month=January | year=1992}}</ref> |
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Measured at the top step, the dimensions of the base of the Parthenon are 69.5 metres by 30.9 metres (228.0 x 101.4 ft). The [[cella]] was 29.8 metres long by 19.2 metres wide (97.8 x 63.0 ft), with internal Doric colonnades in two tiers, structurally necessary to support the roof. On the exterior, the Doric columns measure 1.9 metres (6.2 ft) in diameter and are 10.4 metres (34.1 ft) high. The corner columns are slightly larger in diameter. The Parthenon had 46 outer pillars and 19 inner pillars in total. The stylobate has an upward curvature towards its centre of 60 millimetres (2.36 in) on the east and west ends, and of 110 millimetres (4.33 in) on the sides. The roof was covered with large overlapping marble tiles known as [[imbrex and tegula|imbrices and tegulae]]. |
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==Sculptural decoration== |
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[[Image:Parthenon-top-view.svg|thumb|Floor plan of the Parthenon]] |
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The Parthenon, an [[octostyle]], ''[[peripteral]]'' [[Doric temple]] with [[Ionic order|Ionic]] architectural features, housed the [[chryselephantine]] statue of [[Athena Parthenos]] sculpted by [[Phidias]] and dedicated in 439/438 BC. The decorative stonework was originally highly coloured.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ellopos.net/elpenor/greek-texts/ancient-greece/history-of-ancient-greek-art-12.asp |title=Tarbell, F.B. ''A History of Ancient Greek Art''. (online book) |publisher=Ellopos.net |date= |accessdate=2009-04-18}}</ref> The temple was dedicated to the Athena at that time, though construction continued until almost the beginning of the [[Peloponnesian War]] in 432. By the year 438, the sculptural decoration of the Doric metopes on the frieze above the exterior colonnade, and of the Ionic frieze around the upper portion of the walls of the [[cella]], had been completed. The richness of the Parthenon's frieze and metope decoration is in agreement with the function of the temple as a treasury. In the ''opisthodomus'' (the back room of the cella) were stored the monetary contributions of the Delian League, of which Athens was the leading member. |
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===Metopes=== |
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{{main|Metopes of the Parthenon}} |
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[[Image:Parthenon XL.jpg|thumb|left|Detail of the West metopes, illustrating the current condition of the temple in detail after 2,500 years of war, pollution, erratic conservation, pillage and vandalism]] |
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The ninety-two [[Metopes of the Parthenon|metopes]] were carved in high relief, a practice employed until then only in treasuries (buildings used to keep votive gifts to the gods). According to the building records, the [[metope]] sculptures date to the years 446-440 BC. Their design is attributed to the sculptor Kalamis. The metopes of the east side of the Parthenon, above the main entrance, depict the [[Gigantomachy]] (mythical battles between the Olympian gods and the [[Gigantes|Giants]]). The metopes of the west end show [[Amazonomachy]] (mythical battle of the Athenians against the [[Amazons]]). The metopes of the south side—with the exception of the somewhat problematic metopes 13–20, now lost—show the Thessalian [[Centauromachy]] (battle of the [[Lapiths]] aided by [[Theseus]] against the half-man, half-horse [[Centaur]]s). On the north side of the Parthenon the metopes are poorly preserved, but the subject seems to be the [[Iliou persis|sack of Troy]]. |
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The metopes present surviving traces of the [[Severe Style]] in the anatomy of the figures' heads, in the limitation of the corporal movements to the contours and not to the muscles, and in the presence of pronounced veins in the figures of the [[Centauromachy]]. Several of the metopes still remain on the building, but with the exception of those on the northern side, they are severely damaged. Some of them are located at the [[Acropolis Museum]], others are in the British Museum and one can be seen at the [[Louvre]] museum. |
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[[Image:South metope 3 Parthenon BM.jpg|thumb|South metope 3, one of the high-relief sculptures removed by Lord Elgin's expedition and now in the [[British Museum]]]] |
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===Frieze=== |
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{{main|Parthenon Frieze}} |
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The most characteristic feature in the architecture and decoration of the temple is the Ionic [[frieze]] running around the exterior walls of the cella. The bas-relief frieze was carved in situ; it is dated in 442 BC-438 BC. |
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One interpretation is that it depicts an idealized version of the [[Panathenaic Festival|Panathenaic procession]] from the Dipylon Gate in the [[Kerameikos]] to the [[Acropolis]]. In this procession held every year, with a special procession taking place every four years, Athenians and foreigners were participating to honour the goddess [[Athena]] offering sacrifices and a new [[peplos]] (dress woven by selected noble Athenian girls called ''ergastines''). |
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[[Image:1868 Lawrence Alma-Tadema - Phidias Showing the Frieze of the Parthenon to his Friends.jpg|thumb|left|''[[Phidias]] Showing the Frieze of the Parthenon to his Friends'', 1868 painting by [[Lawrence Alma-Tadema]]]] |
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[[Joan Breton Connelly]] has recently argued for another interpretation of the Frieze, in which she attempts to prove that the iconography of the Frieze is based on [[Greek mythology]]. This interpretation postulates that the scenes depict the sacrifice of [[Pandora]], youngest daughter of [[Erechtheus]], to Athena. This human sacrifice was demanded by Athena to save the city from [[Eumolpus]], king of [[Eleusis]], who had gathered an army to attack Athens.<ref>Connelly, ''Parthenon and Parthenoi'', 53–80.</ref> |
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===Pediments=== |
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The 2nd-century traveller [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]], when he visited the Acropolis at the end of the second century AD , only mentioned briefly the sculptures of the [[pediment]]s (gable ends) of the temple, reserving the majority of his description for the gold and ivory statue of the goddess inside. |
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====East pediment==== |
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The East pediment narrates the birth of [[Athena]] from the head of her father, [[Zeus]]. According to [[Greek mythology]] Zeus gave birth to Athena after a terrible headache prompted him to summon [[Hephaestus]]' (the god of fire and the forge) assistance. To alleviate the pain he ordered Hephaestus to strike him with his forging hammer, and when he did, Zeus's head split open and out popped the goddess Athena in full armour. The sculptural arrangement depicts the moment of Athena's birth. |
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Unfortunately, the center pieces of the pediment were destroyed even before [[Jacques Carrey]] created otherwise useful documentary drawings in 1674, so all reconstructions are subject to conjecture and speculation. The main Olympian gods must have stood around [[Zeus]] and [[Athena]] watching the wondrous event, with [[Hephaestus]] and [[Hera]] probably near them. The Carrey drawings are instrumental in reconstructing the sculptural arrangement beyond the center figures to the north and south.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ancient-greece.org/art/parthenon-ped-east.html |title=Thomas Sakoulas, Ancient Greece.org |publisher=Ancient-greece.org |date=2007-04-21 |accessdate=2009-04-18}}</ref> |
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====West pediment==== |
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The west pediment faced the Propylaia and depicted the contest between Athena and [[Poseidon]] during their competition for the honor of becoming the city's patron. [[Athena]] and [[Poseidon]] appear at the center of the composition, diverging from one another in strong diagonal forms with the goddess holding the olive tree and the god of the sea raising his trident to strike the earth. At their flanks they are framed by two active groups of horses pulling chariots, while a crowd of legendary personalities from Athenian mythology fills the space out to the acute corners of the pediment. |
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The work on the pediments lasted from 438 to 432 BC, and the sculptures of the Parthenon pediments are some of the finest examples of classical Greek art. The figures are sculpted in natural movement with bodies full of vital energy that bursts through their flesh, as the flesh in turn bursts through their thin clothing. The thin [[chiton (costume)|chitons]] allow the [[body]] underneath to be revealed as the focus of the composition. The distinction between gods and humans is blurred in the conceptual interplay between the idealism and naturalism bestowed on the stone by the sculptors.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ancient-greece.org/art/parthenon-ped-west.html |title=Thomas Sakoulas, Ancient Greece.org |publisher=Ancient-greece.org |date=2007-04-21 |accessdate=2009-04-18}}</ref> The pediments no longer exist. |
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===Athena Parthenos=== |
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{{details|Athena Parthenos}} |
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The only piece of sculpture from the Parthenon known to be from the hand of Pheidias<ref>Kenneth D. S. Lapatin, Chryselephantine Statuary in the Ancient Mediterranean World, 2002, p.63.</ref> was the statue of Athena housed in the ''naos''. This massive [[chryselephantine]] sculpture is now lost and known only from copies, vase painting, gems, literary descriptions and coins.<ref>N. Leipen, Athena Parthenos: a huge reconstruction, 1972.</ref> |
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==Older Parthenon== |
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{{main|Older Parthenon}} |
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The first endeavour to build a sanctuary for Athena Parthenos on the site of the present Parthenon was begun shortly after the [[Battle of Marathon]] (c. 490-88 BC). This building replaced a hekatompedon (meaning "hundred-footer") and would have stood beside the archaic temple dedicated to Athena Polias. The “older Parthenon”, as it is frequently referred to, was still under construction when the [[Persian Empire|Persians]] sacked the city in 480 BC and razed the Acropolis. The existence of the proto-Parthenon and its destruction were known from [[Herodotus]],<ref>Herodotus Histories, 8.53</ref> and the drums of its columns were plainly visible built into the curtain wall north of the [[Erechtheum]]. Further material evidence of this structure was revealed with the excavations of Patagiotis Kavvadias of 1885-90. The findings of this dig allowed [[Wilhelm Dörpfeld]], then director of the German Archaeological Institute, to assert that there existed a distinct substructure to the original Parthenon, called Parthenon I by Dörpfeld, not immediately below the present edifice as had been previously assumed.<ref>W. Dörpfeld, "Der aeltere Parthenon", ''Ath. Mitteilungen'', XVII, 1892, p. 158-89 and W. Dörpfeld, "Die Zeit des alteren Parthenon", ''AM'' '''27''', 1902, 379-416</ref> Dörpfeld's observation was that the three steps of the first Parthenon consisted of two steps of Poros limestone, the same as the foundations, and a top step of Karrha limestone that was covered by the lowest step of the Periclean Parthenon. This platform was smaller and slightly to the north of the final Parthenon, indicating that it was built for a wholly different building, now wholly covered over. This picture was somewhat complicated by the publication of the final report on the 1885-90 excavations, indicating that the substructure was contemporary with the Kimonian walls, and implying a later date for the first temple.<ref>P. Kavvadis, G. Kawerau, ''Die Ausgabung der Acropolis vom Jahre 1885 bis zum Jahre 1890'', 1906</ref> |
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If the original Parthenon was indeed destroyed in 480, it invites the question of why the site was left a ruin for thirty-three years. One argument involves the oath sworn by the Greek allies before the [[Battle of Plataea]] in 479 BC<ref> NM Tod, ''A Selection of Greek Historical Inscriptions II'', 1948, no. 204, lines 46-51, The authenticity of this is disputed, however; see also P. Siewert, Der Eid von Plataia (Munich 1972) 98-102</ref> declaring that the sanctuaries destroyed by the Persians would not be rebuilt, an oath from which the Athenians were only absolved with the [[Peace of Callias]] in 450.<ref>See [http://people.reed.edu/~mkerr/papers/Parth95.html Minott Kerr, "The Sole Witness": The Periclean Parthenon]</ref> The mundane fact of the cost of reconstructing Athens after the Persian sack is at least as likely a cause. However, the excavations of [[Bert Hodge Hill]] led him to propose the existence of a second Parthenon, begun in the period of [[Cimon|Kimon]] after 468 BC.<ref> B. H. Hill, "The Older Parthenon", ''AJA', XVI, 1912, 535-58</ref> Hill claimed that the Karrha limestone step Dörpfeld took to be the highest of Parthenon I was in fact the lowest of the three steps of Parthenon II, whose stylobate dimensions Hill calculated to be 23.51x66.888m. |
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One difficulty in dating the proto-Parthenon is that at the time of the 1885 excavation the archaeological method of [[seriation (archaeology)|seriation]] was not fully developed; the careless digging and refilling of the site led to a loss of much valuable information. An attempt to make sense of the potsherds found on the acropolis came with the two-volume study by Graef and Langlotz published 1925-33.<ref>B. Graef, E. Langlotz, ''Die Antiken Vasen von der Akropolis zu Athen'', Berlin 1925-33</ref> This inspired American archaeologist [[William Bell Dinsmoor]] to attempt to supply limiting dates for the temple platform and the five walls hidden under the re-terracing of the Acropolis. Dinsmoor concluded that the latest possible date for Parthenon I was no earlier 495 BC, contradicting the early date given by Dörpfeld.<ref>W. Dinsmoor, "The Date of the Older Parthenon", ''AJA'', XXXVIII, 1934, 408-48</ref> Further Dinsmoor denied that there were two proto-Parthenons, and that the only pre-Periclean temple was what Dörpfeld referred to as Parthenon II. Dinsmoor and Dörpfeld exchanged views in the ''American Journal of Archaeology'' in 1935.<ref>W. Dörpfeld, "Parthenon I, II, III", ''AJA'', XXXIX, 1935, 497-507, and W. Dinsmoor, ''AJA'', XXXIX, 1935, 508-9</ref> |
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==Name== |
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The origin of the Parthenon's name is unclear. According to [[Jeffrey M. Hurwit]], the term "Parthenon" means "the virgin's place", and seems to have originally referred only to a particular room of the Parthenon; it is debated which room this is, and how the room acquired its name. One theory holds that the "parthenon" was the room in which the [[peplos]] presented to Athena at the [[Panathenaic Festival]] was woven by the [[arrephoros|arrephoroi]], a group of four young girls chosen to serve Athena each year.<ref>Hurwit, ''The Athenian Acropolis'', 161–163.</ref> Christopher Pelling asserts that Athena Parthenos may have constituted a discrete cult of Athena, intimately connected with, but not identical to, that of [[Athena Polias]].<ref>Research has revealed a shrine with altar pre-dating the Older Parthenon, respected by, incorporated and rebuilt in the north [[pteron]] of the Parthenon (Pelling, ''Greek Tragedy and the Historian'', 169).</ref> According to this theory, the name of Parthenon means the "temple of the virgin goddess", and refers to the cult of Athena Parthenos that was associated with the temple.<ref name="Br">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Parthenon |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica}}</ref> The epithet ''parthénos'' ({{lang-el|παρθένος}}), whose origin is also unclear,<ref>[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Parthenon Parthenon], Online Etymology Dictionary</ref> meant "virgin, unmarried woman", and was especially used for [[Artemis]], the goddess of wild animals, the hunt, and vegetation, and for Athena, the goddess of war, handicraft, and practical reason.<ref name="B159">Bernal, ''Black Athena Writes Back-CL'', 159<br />* Frazer, ''The Golden Bough'', 18<br />* {{cite encyclopedia|title=Parthenos|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Mythica|url=http://www.pantheon.org/articles/p/parthenos.html}}</ref> It has also been suggested that the name of the temple alludes to the virgins (parthenoi), whose supreme sacrifice guaranteed the safety of the city.<ref>Whitley, ''The Archaeology of Ancient Greece'', 352</ref> |
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The first instance in which ''Parthenon'' definitely refers to the entire building is in the 4th-century BC orator [[Demosthenes]]. In the 5th-century building accounts, the structure is simply called ''ho naos'' ("the temple"). The architects Mnesikles and Kallikrates are said to have called the building ''Hekatompedos'' ("the hundred footer") in their lost treatise on Athenian architecture,<ref>[[Harpocration]].{{Fact|date=May 2007}}</ref> and in the 4th century and later the building was referred to as the ''Hekatompedos'' or the ''Hekatompedon'' as well as the Parthenon; the 1st-century AD writer [[Plutarch]] refers to the building as the ''Hekatompedon Parthenon''.<ref>[[Plutarch]], ''Pericles'' 13.4.</ref> |
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==Function== |
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Although the Parthenon is architecturally a temple and is usually called so, it is not really one in the conventional sense of the word.<ref name="Deacy-11">S. Deacy, ''Athena'', Routledge, 2008, p.111.</ref> A small shrine has been excavated within the building, on the site of an older sanctuary probably dedicated to Athena ''Ergane'',<ref name="Deacy-11" /> but the Parthenon never hosted the cult of Athena Polias, protector of Athens: the [[cult image]] which was bathed in the sea and to which was presented the ''[[peplos]]'', was an olivewood ''[[xoanon]]'', located at an older altar on the northern side of the Acropolis.<ref name="Burkert-143">Burkert, ''Greek Religion'', Blackwell, 1985, p.143.</ref> Thus the Parthenon was essentially a treasury as well. |
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The colossal statue of Athena by [[Phidias]] was not related to any cult<ref>MC. Hellmann, ''L'Architecture grecque. Architecture religieuse et funéraire'', Picard, 2006, p.118.</ref> and never inspired any recorded religious fervour.<ref name="Burkert-143" /> It did not seem to have any priestess, altar nor cult name.<ref name="Nagy-55">B. Nagy, "Athenian Officials on the Parthenon Frieze", ''AJA'', Vol.96, No.1 (Jan. 1992), pp.55.</ref> According to [[Thucydides]], [[Pericles]] once referred to the statue as a gold reserve, stressing that it "contained forty talents of pure gold and it was all removable".<ref>Thucydides 2.13.5. Retrieved September 11, 2008.</ref> The Athenian statesman thus implies that the metal, obtained from contemporary coinage,<ref>S. Eddy, "The Gold in the Athena Parthenos", ''AJA'', Vol.81, No.1 (Winter, 1977), pp.107-111.</ref> could be used again without any impiety.<ref name="Nagy-55" /> |
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The Parthenon should then be viewed as a grand setting for the votive statue of Phidias rather than a cult site.<ref>B. Holtzmann and A. Pasquier, ''Histoire de l'art antique : l'art grec'', École du Louvre, Réunion des musées nationaux and Documentation française, 1998, p.177.</ref> It also served as a treasury: the funds of the [[Delian League]], transferred from Delos to Athens in 454 BC, were housed in one of its rooms. |
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==Later history== |
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===Christian church=== |
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The Parthenon survived as a temple to Athena for close to a thousand years. It was certainly still intact in the 4th century AD, by which time it was already as old as [[Notre Dame Cathedral]] in [[Paris]] is now, and far older than [[St. Peter's Basilica]] in [[Rome]]. But by that time Athens had been reduced to a provincial city of the [[Roman Empire]], albeit one with a glorious past. Sometime in the 5th century AD, the great [[cult image]] of Athena was looted by one of the Emperors, and taken to [[Constantinople]], where it was later destroyed, possibly during the sack of the city during the [[Fourth Crusade]] in 1204 AD. |
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[[Image:Parthenon from SW (finished 438 BC).JPG|thumb|The Parthenon's position on the Acropolis allows it to dominate the city skyline of Athens.]] |
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Shortly after this, the Parthenon was converted to a [[History of Christianity#Church of the Early Middle Ages (476–800)|Christian]] [[Church (building)|church]]. In [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] times it became the Church of the Parthenos Maria (Virgin Mary), or the Church of the [[Theotokos]] ([[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Mother of God]]). It was the fourth most important pilgrimage in the Eastern Roman Empire after Constantinople, Ephessos and Thessalonica.<ref name=Kaldelis>Anthony Kaldellis Associate Professor (Department of Greek and Latin, The Ohio State University), [http://www.lsa.umich.edu/UMICH/modgreek/Home/_TOPNAV_WTGC/Lectures%20at%20U-M/ParthenonKaldellis.pdf ''A Heretical (Orthodox) History of the Parthenon''], p.3</ref> In 1018, the emperor [[Basil II]] went on a pilgrimage to Athens directly after his final victory over the Bulgarians for the sole purpose of worshipping at the Parthenon.<ref name=Kaldelis/> In medieval Greek accounts it called the Temple of Theotokos Atheniotissa and often indirectly referred to, as famous without explaining which temple they were referring to precisely, thus establishing that it was indeed well known.<ref name=Kaldelis/> |
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At the time of the [[Latin Empire|Latin occupation]] it became for about 250 years a [[Roman Catholic Church]] of [[Our Lady]]. The conversion of the temple to a church involved removing the internal columns and some of the walls of the [[cella]], and the creation of an [[apse]] at the eastern end. This inevitably led to the removal and dispersal of some of the sculptures. Those depicting gods were either possibly re-interpreted according to a Christian theme, or removed and destroyed. |
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===Ottoman mosque=== |
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In 1456, Athens fell to the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]], and the Parthenon was converted again, into a [[mosque]]. Contrary to subsequent misconception, the Ottomans were broadly respectful of ancient monuments in their territories and did not willfully destroy the antiquities of Athens, but at the same time made no special effort to protect them. In times of war they were willing to demolish them to provide materials for walls and fortifications. A [[minaret]] was added to the Parthenon, and its base and stairway are still functional, leading up as high as the architrave and hence invisible from the outside. Otherwise, the Ottomans did not further modify the building. European visitors in the 17th century, as well as some representations of the Acropolis hill, testified that the building was largely intact. |
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===Destruction=== |
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[[Image:Parthenon.Southern.Side.damaged.jpg|thumb|The southern side of the Parthenon, which sustained considerable damage in the 1687 explosion]] |
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[[Image:MotarFragmentFromParthenon-BritishMuseum-August21-08.jpg|thumb|125px|left|Fragment of an exploded shell found on top of a wall in the Parthenon, thought to originate from the time of the Venetian siege]] |
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In 1687, the Parthenon suffered its greatest blow when the [[Republic of Venice|Venetians]] under [[Francesco Morosini]] attacked Athens, and the Ottomans fortified the Acropolis and used the building as a gunpowder magazine. On 26 September a Venetian mortar, fired from the Hill of Philopappus, blew the magazine up and the building was partly destroyed.<ref>Theodor E. Mommsen, ''The Venetians in Athens and the Destruction of the Parthenon in 1687'', American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 45, No. 4 (Oct. - Dec., 1941), pp. 544–556</ref> Morosini then proceeded to attempt to loot sculptures from the ruin. The internal structures were demolished, whatever was left of the roof collapsed, and some of the pillars, particularly on the southern side, were decapitated. The sculptures suffered heavily. Many fell to the ground, and souvenirs were later made from their pieces. Consequently some sections of the sculptural decoration are known only from the drawings made by Flemish artist Jacques Carrey in 1674.<ref>T. Bowie, D. Thimme, ''The Carrey Drawings of the Parthenon Sculptures'', 1971</ref> After this, much of the building fell into disuse and a smaller mosque was erected. |
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The 18th century was a period of Ottoman stagnation; as a result, many more Europeans found access to Athens, and the picturesque ruins of the Parthenon were much drawn and painted, spurring a rise in [[philhellenism]] and helping to arouse sympathy in [[United Kingdom|Britain]] and [[France]] for Greek independence. Amongst those early travellers and archaeologists were James Stuart and Nicholas Revett, who were commissioned by the [[Society of Dilettanti]] to survey the ruins of classical Athens. What they produced was the first measured drawings of the Parthenon published in 1787 in the second volume of ''Antiquities of Athens Measured and Delineated''. In 1801, the British Ambassador at [[Constantinople]], the [[Thomas Bruce, 7th Earl of Elgin|Earl of Elgin]], obtained a ''firman'' (edict) from the [[Sultan]] to make casts and drawings of the antiquities on the Acropolis, to demolish recent buildings if this was necessary to view the antiquities, and to remove sculptures from them. He took this as permission to collect all the sculptures he could find. He employed local people to detach them from the building itself; a few others he collected from the ground, and some smaller pieces he bought from local people. The detachment of the sculptures caused further irreparable damage to what was left of the building, as some of the frieze blocks were sawn in half to lessen their weight for shipment to England. |
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===Independent Greece=== |
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When independent Greece gained control of Athens in 1832, the visible section of the minaret was demolished from the Parthenon, and soon all the medieval and Ottoman buildings on the Acropolis were destroyed. However the image of the small mosque within the Parthenon's cella has been preserved in Joly de Lotbinière's photograph, published in Lerebours's ''Excursions Daguerriennes'' in 1842: the first photograph of the Acropolis.<ref>Neils, ''The Parthenon: From Antiquity to the Present'', 336{{ndash}} the picture was taken in October 1839</ref> The area became a historical precinct controlled by the Greek government. Today it attracts millions of tourists every year, who travel up the path at the western end of the Acropolis, through the restored [[Propylaea]], and up the Panathenaic Way to the Parthenon, which is surrounded by a low fence to prevent damage. |
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===Dispute over the marbles=== |
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[[Image:Parthenon-pediment-sculptures.JPG|thumb|Life-size pediment sculptures from the Parthenon in the British Museum]] |
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Today, the Parthenon Marbles which were removed by the Earl of Elgin are in the [[British Museum]]. Other sculptures from the Parthenon are now in the [[Louvre]] in [[Paris]], in [[Copenhagen]], and elsewhere, but most of the remainder are in Athens in the [[Acropolis Museum]], which still stands below ground level a few metres to the south-east of the Parthenon, but will be soon transferred to a new building.<ref name="BrIT">[http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2006/10/09/europe/EU_GEN_Greece_Acropolis_Museum.php Greek Premier Says New Acropolis Museum to Boost Bid for Parthenon Sculptures], International Herald Tribune<br />* {{cite encyclopedia|title=Parthenon|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica}}</ref> A few can still be seen on the building itself. The Greek government has been campaigning since 1983 for the British Museum sculptures to be returned to [[Greece]].<ref name="IT">[http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2006/10/09/europe/EU_GEN_Greece_Acropolis_Museum.php Greek Premier Says New Acropolis Museum to Boost Bid for Parthenon Sculptures], International Herald Tribune</ref> The British Museum has steadfastly refused to return the sculptures,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britishmuseum.org/the_museum/news_and_press_releases/statements/the_parthenon_sculptures/facts_and_figures.aspx |title=The Parthenon Sculptures: The Position of the British Museum Truistees and Common Misconceptions |publisher=The British Museum |date= |accessdate=2009-04-18}}</ref> and successive British governments have been unwilling to force the Museum to do so (which would require legislation). Nevertheless, talks between senior representatives from Greek and British cultural ministries, and their legal advisors took place in London on 4 May 2007. These were the first serious negotiations for several years, and there are hopes that the two sides may move a step closer to a resolution.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6578661.stm Talks Due on Elgin Marbles Return], BBC News</ref> |
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==Reconstruction== |
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[[Image:Parthenon-scaffolding.jpg|thumb|Restoration work on the Parthenon in February 2004]] |
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In 1975, the Greek government began a concerted effort to restore the Parthenon and other Acropolis structures. After some delay a Committee for the Conservation of the Acropolis Monuments was established in 1983.<ref>[http://www.arcchip.cz/w09/w09_lambrinou.pdf Lina Lambrinou, "State of the Art: ‘Parthenon of Athens: A Challenge Throughout History"] (pdf file) with bibliography of interim conservation reports; </ref> The project later attracted funding and technical assistance from the [[European Union]]. An archaeological committee thoroughly documented every artifact remaining on the site, and architects assisted with computer models to determine their original locations. In some cases, prior re-construction was found to be incorrect. Particularly important and fragile sculptures were transferred to the Acropolis Museum. A crane was installed for moving marble blocks; the crane was designed to fold away beneath the roofline when not in use. The incorrect reconstructions were dismantled, and a careful process of restoration began.<ref>[http://cipa.icomos.org/fileadmin/papers/Athens2007/FP111.pdf "The Surface Conservation Project"] (pdf file). Once they had been conserved the West Frieze blocks were moved to the museum, and copies cast in artificial stone were reinstalled in their places.</ref> The Parthenon will not be restored to a pre-1687 state, but the explosion damage will be mitigated as much as possible, both in the interest of restoring the structural integrity of the edifice (important in this earthquake-prone region) and to restore the aesthetic integrity by filling in chipped sections of column drums and lintels, using precisely sculpted [[marble]] cemented in place. New Pentelic marble is being used from the original quarry. Ultimately, almost all major pieces of marble will be placed in the structure where they originally would have been, supported as needed by modern materials. |
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Originally, various blocks were held together by elongated [[iron]] '''H''' pins that were completely coated in [[lead]], which protected the iron from corrosion. Stabilizing pins added in the 19th century were not so coated and corroded. Since the corrosion product (rust) is expansive, the expansion caused further damage by cracking the marble.<ref>{{cite web |title =Unlocking the Mysteries of the Parthenon |author=Hadingham, Evan |publisher= [[Smithsonian Magazine]] |year=2008 |url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/parthenon.html |accessdate=2008-02-22}}</ref> All new metalwork uses [[titanium]], a strong, light, and corrosion resistant material. |
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==Pollution hazards== |
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[[Image:ParthenonNight.jpg|thumb|Acropolis and Parthenon at night]] |
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An immediate problem facing the Parthenon is the environmental impact of the growth of Athens since the 1960s. Corrosion of its marble by [[acid rain]] and car pollutants has already caused irreparable damage to some sculptures and threatens the remaining sculptures and the temple itself. Over the past 20 years, the Greek government and the city of Athens have made some progress on these issues, but the future survival of the Parthenon does not seem to be assured. |
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==Media== |
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[[File:Athens Acropolis Parthenon day.ogg|thumb|300px|center|A short movie showing the main sights of the Athenian Acropolis]] |
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==See also== |
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[[Image:Parthenon.at.Nashville.Tenenssee.01.jpg|thumb|right|150px|The [[Parthenon (Nashville)|Parthenon in Nashville]], Tennessee, USA is a full-scale replica of the original Greek [[Parthenon]].]] |
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*[[New Acropolis Museum]] |
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*[[Erechtheum]] |
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*[[Parthenon (Nashville)|Nashville Parthenon]] - a full scale and [[polychrome]]d replica of the original as seen by the ancients |
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*[[National Monument, Edinburgh]] |
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*[[Greek temple]] |
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*[[List of megalithic sites]] |
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==Notes== |
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{{reflist|2}} |
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==References== |
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===Printed sources=== |
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<div class="references-small"> |
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*{{cite book |last=Bernal|first=Martin|authorlink=Martin Bernal|title=Black Athena Writes Back-CL: Martin Bernal Responds to His Critics|year=2001|publisher=Duke University Press|isbn=0-822-32717-1}} |
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*{{cite book |last=Burkert|first=Walter|authorlink=Walter Burkert|title=Greek Religion|year=1985|publisher=Harvard University Press|location= |isbn=0-674-36281-0}} |
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*{{cite journal |last=Connelly |first=Joan B.|authorlink=Joan Breton Connelly|coauthors= |year=1996 |month=January |title=Parthenon and Parthenoi: A Mythological Interpretation of the Parthenon Frieze |journal=[[American Journal of Archaeology]] |volume=100 |issue=1 |page= 53|id= |url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0002-9114(199601)100%3A1%3C53%3APAPAMI%3E2.0.CO;2-C |accessdate=2007-04-23 |quote= |doi=10.2307/506297 }} |
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*{{cite book |last=Frazer |first= Sir James George|title=The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion|year=1998|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=The King of the Woods|isbn=0-192-83541-6}} |
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*{{cite book |last=Hurwit |first=Jeffrey M. |title=The Athenian Acropolis: History, Mythology, and Archeology from the Neolithic Era to the Present |year=2000|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location= |isbn=0-521-42834-3}} |
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*{{cite book |last=Hurwit |first=Jeffrey M. |title=Periklean Athens and Its Legacy: Problems and Perspectives|year=2005|publisher=University of Texas Press|isbn=0-292-70622-7|editor=Judith M. Barringer, Jeffrey M. Hurwit, Jerome Jordan Pollitt|chapter=The Parthenon and the Tample of Zeus at Olympia}} |
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*{{cite book |last=Neils|first=Jenifer|title=The Parthenon: From Antiquity to the Present|year=2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location= |isbn=0-521-82093-6}} |
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*{{cite encyclopedia|title=Parthenon|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica|year=2002}} |
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*{{cite encyclopedia|title=Parthenos|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Mythica|url=http://www.pantheon.org/}} |
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*{{cite book |last=Pelling|first=Christopher|title=Greek Tragedy and the Historian|year=1997|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=Tragedy and Religion: Constructs and Readings |isbn=0-198-14987-5}} |
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*{{cite book |last=Tarbell|first=F.B|title=A History of Ancient Greek Art|location=online|url=http://www.ellopos.net/elpenor/greek-texts/ancient-greece/history-of-ancient-greek-art-12.asp}} |
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*{{cite book |last=Whitley|first=James|title=The Archaeology of Ancient Greece|year=2001|publisher=Cambridge University Press|chapter=The Archaeology of Democracy: Classical Athens|isbn=0-521-62733-8}} |
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</div> |
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===Online sources=== |
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<div class="references-small"> |
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*{{cite news |first= |last= |authorlink= |coauthors= |title= Greek Premier Says New Acropolis Museum to Boost Bid for Parthenon Sculptures |url=http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2006/10/09/europe/EU_GEN_Greece_Acropolis_Museum.php|work= |publisher=International Herald Tribune|date=2006-10-09 |accessdate=2007-04-23}} |
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*{{cite web |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Parthenon | title=Parthenon |accessdate=2007-05-05 |work= Online Etymology Dictionary}} |
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*{{cite news |first= |last= |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Talks Due on Elgin Marbles Return |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6578661.stm |work= |publisher=BBC News |date=2007-04-21 |accessdate=2007-04-23}} |
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*{{cite web|url=http://odysseus.culture.gr/h/3/eh351.jsp?obj_id=2384|title=Acropolis of Athens - History|author=Ioanna Venieri|publisher= Οδυσσεύς|work=Acropolis of Athens| accessdate=2007-05-04}} |
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</div> |
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==Further reading== |
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<div class="references-small"> |
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*[[Mary Beard (classicist)|Beard, Mary.]] ''The Parthenon''. Harvard University: 2003. ISBN 0-674-01085-X. |
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*Cosmopoulos, Michael (editor). ''The Parthenon and its Sculptures''. Cambridge University: 2004. ISBN 0-521-83673-5. |
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*{{cite book |last=Holtzman |first=Bernard|title=L'Acropole d'Athènes : Monuments, Cultes et Histoire du sanctuaire d'Athèna Polias|year=2003|publisher=Picard|location= Paris|language=French|isbn=2-7084-0687-6}} |
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*Papachatzis, Nikolaos D. ''Pausaniou Ellados Periegesis- Attika'' Athens, 1974. |
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*Tournikio, Panayotis. ''Parthenon''. Abrams: 1996. ISBN 0-8109-6314-0. |
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*Traulos, Ioannis N. '' I Poleodomike ekselikses ton Athinon'' Athens, 1960 ISBN 960-7254-01-5 |
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*Woodford, Susan. ''The Parthenon''. Cambridge University: 1981. ISBN 0-521-22629-5. |
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*King, Dorothy "The Elgin Marbles" Hutchinson / Random House, January 2006. ISBN 0-09-180013-7 |
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*Queyrel, François [http://www.editions-bartillat.fr/fiche-livre.asp?Clef=281 ''Le Parthénon, Un monument dans l'Histoire'']. Bartillat, 2008. ISBN 978284100-435-5. |
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</div> |
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==External links== |
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{{commons|Parthenon}} |
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{{wiktionary}} |
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*[http://odysseus.culture.gr/h/2/eh251.jsp?obj_id=912 The Acropolis of Athens: The Parthenon] (official site with a schedule of its opening hours, tickets and contact information) |
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*[http://www.yppo.gr/4/e40.jsp?obj_id=123 (Hellenic Ministry of Culture) The Acropolis Restoration Project] |
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*[http://www.metrum.org/key/athens/index.htm The Athenian Acropolis by Livio C. Stecchini] (Takes the heterodox view of the date of the proto-Parthenon, but a useful summary of the scholarship.) |
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*[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/404 UNESCO World Heritage Centre - Acropolis, Athens] |
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*[http://www.nashville.gov/parthenon/index.htm Metropolitan Government of Nashville and Davidson County — The Parthenon] |
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*[http://sketchup.google.com/3dwarehouse/details?mid=8174b921338882e8816a3771436c8474 Google Sketchup 3D Model of Parthenon (simplistic)] |
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*[http://www.vgreece.com/index.php?entry=entry050714-163859 Parthenon virtual tour] Interactive 360° panoramas in high resolution. |
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*[http://numberonestars.com/travel/parthenon_vacation_greece.htm Parthenon 'The Golden Age of Pericles'] |
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*[http://www.acropolisfriends.gr/index.php?lang=en The Friends of the Acropolis] |
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*[http://people.hsc.edu/drjclassics/lectures/ParthenonMarbles/marbles.shtm Illustrated Parthenon Marbles] - Dr. Janice Siegel, Department of Classics, [[Hampden-Sydney College]], Virginia |
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===Campaigning websites=== |
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*[http://odysseus.culture.gr/a/1/12/ea120.html The Restitution of the Parthenon Marbles - the official page by the Hellenic Ministry of Culture] |
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*[http://marblesreunited.com/ Marbles Reunited] |
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*[http://www.acropolisofathens.gr/ Acropolis of Athens - AcropolisofAthens.gr - one monument, one heritage] |
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*[http://parthenon2004.com/ Parthenon 2004 - The Campaign to Return the Parthenon Marbles to Athens] |
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*[http://www.parthenon.webnode.com United Parthenon] |
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{{Ancient Greece topics}} |
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[[Category:Acropolis of Athens]] |
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[[Category:5th-century BC architecture]] |
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[[Category:Sculptures by Phidias]] |
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[[Category:Greek temples]] |
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[[Category:Conversion of non-Christian places of worship into Churches]] |
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[[Category:Conversion of non-Muslim places of worship into mosques]] |
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Revision as of 04:24, 4 May 2009
The parthnon is ya mums mum