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Sexual system

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For Linnaeus' sexual system, a classification of plants, see Linnaean taxonomy § Classification for plants.

A sexual system is a pattern of sex allocation[1] or a distribution of male and female function across organisms in a species.[2] Terms like reproductive system and mating system have also been used as synonyms.[3]

The distinction between sexual systems is not always clear due to phenotypic plasticity.[1] Sexual systems are viewed as a key factor for genetic variation and reproductive success, and may have also led to the origin or extinction of certain species.[4]

Interests in sexual systems go back to Darwin, who found that barnacles contain species that are androdioecious and some that are dioecious.[5]

Types of sexual systems

In plants there are monomorphic sexual systems where a species has hermaphrodite, male and/or female flowers on the same plant. Monomorphic sexual systems include monoecy, gynomonoecy, andromonoecy and trimonoecy. There are also dimorphic sexual systems like dioecy, gynodioecy and androdioecy.[6]

Mixed sexual systems are where hermaphrodites coexist with single sexed individuals.[7] This includes androdioecy, gynodioecy, and trioecy.[8]

List of sexual systems

A

Androdioecy

Androdioecy is a sexual system in which males and hermaphrodites coexist in a population.[9] It is rare in both plants and animals.[10]

Andromonoecy

Andromonoecy is a rare sexual system in angiosperms, in which a plant has both male and hermaphroditic flowers.[11] It has been a subject of interest regarding the mechanism of sex expression.[12]

D

Dioicy

Dioicy is one of the two main sexual systems in bryophytes.[13] In dioicy male and female sex organs are on separate gametophytes.[14]

Dioecy

Dioecy is a sexual system in which a species has distinct individual organisms that are either male or female, i.e., they produce only male or only female gametes, either directly (in animals) or indirectly (in plants).[15]

G

Gonochorism

Gonochorism is a sexual system where individuals are either male or female.[15] The term "gonochorism" is usually applied to animals while "dioecy" is applied to plants.[16] Gonochorism is the most common sexual system in animals, occurring in 95% of animal species.[17]

Gynodioecy

Gynodioecy is a sexual system in which females and hermaphrodites coexist in the same population.[9]

Gynomonoecy

Gynomonoecy is defined as the presence of both female and hermaphrodite flowers on the same individual of a plant species.[18] It is prevalent in Asteraceae but is poorly understood.[19]

Gynodioecy-Gynomonoecy

Gynodioecy-Gynomonoecy is a sexual system for plants when female, hermaphrodite, and gynomonoecious plants coexist in the same population.[20]: 360 

M

Monoicy

Monoicy is one of the two main sexual systems in bryophytes.[13] In monoicy male and female sex organs are present in the same gametophyte.[14]

Monoecy

Monoecy is a sexual system in which male and female flowers are present on the same plant. It is common in angiosperms,[21] and occurs in 10% of all plant species.[22][dubious – discuss]

S

Sequential hermaphroditism

In sequential hermaphroditism individuals start their adult lives as one sex, and change to the other sex at a later age.[23]

Sequential monoecy

Sequential monoecy[clarification needed] is a considered a confusing sexual system.[clarification needed][24] Sequential monoecy can be difficult to differentiate from dioecy.[25]

Simultaneous hermaphroditism

Simultaneous hermaphroditism is a sexual system where an individual can produce both gamete types in the same breeding season.[26] Simultaneous hermaphroditism is one of the most common sexual systems in animals (though far less common than gonochorism) and is one of the most stable.[27]

Synoecy

Synoecy is a sexual system in which all individuals in a population of flowering plants bear solely hermaphrodite flowers.[23]

T

Trioecy

Trioecy is a sexual system where males, females, and hermaphrodites exist in the same population.[8] It is present in both plants and animals but is always extremely rare.[28] Trioecy occurs in about 3.6% of flowering plants.[29]

Trimonoecy

Trimonoecy (also called androgynomonoecy) is when male, female, and hermaphrodite flowers are present on the same plant.[23][30] Triomonoecy is rare.[31]

References

  1. ^ a b Leonard JL (2019-05-21). Transitions Between Sexual Systems: Understanding the Mechanisms of, and Pathways Between, Dioecy, Hermaphroditism and Other Sexual Systems. Springer. p. 1. ISBN 978-3-319-94139-4.
  2. ^ Encyclopedia of Animal Behavior. Vol. 4. Academic Press. 2019-01-21. p. 584. ISBN 978-0-12-813252-4.
  3. ^ Cardoso, João Custódio Fernandes; Viana, Matheus Lacerda; Matias, Raphael; Furtado, Marco Túlio; Caetano, Ana Paula de Souza; Consolaro, Hélder; Brito, Vinícius Lourenço Garcia de (Jul–Sep 2018). "Towards a unified terminology for angiosperm reproductive systems". Acta Botanica Brasilica. 32 (3): 329–348. doi:10.1590/0102-33062018abb0124. ISSN 0102-3306. S2CID 91470660.
  4. ^ Goldberg EE, Otto SP, Vamosi JC, Mayrose I, Sabath N, Ming R, Ashman TL (April 2017). "Macroevolutionary synthesis of flowering plant sexual systems". Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution. 71 (4): 898–912. doi:10.1111/evo.13181. PMID 28085192. S2CID 19562183.
  5. ^ Yusa Y, Yoshikawa M, Kitaura J, Kawane M, Ozaki Y, Yamato S, Høeg JT (March 2012). "Adaptive evolution of sexual systems in pedunculate barnacles". Proceedings. Biological Sciences. 279 (1730): 959–66. doi:10.1098/rspb.2011.1554. PMC 3259936. PMID 21881138.
  6. ^ Torices R, Méndez M, Gómez JM (April 2011). "Where do monomorphic sexual systems fit in the evolution of dioecy? Insights from the largest family of angiosperms". The New Phytologist. 190 (1): 234–248. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2010.03609.x. PMID 21219336.
  7. ^ Leonard J, Cordoba-Aguilar A (2010-07-19). The Evolution of Primary Sexual Characters in Animals. Oxford University Press, USA. pp. 29–30. ISBN 978-0-19-532555-3.
  8. ^ a b Oyarzún PA, Nuñez JJ, Toro JE, Gardner J (2020). "Trioecy in the Marine Mussel Semimytilus algosus (Mollusca, Bivalvia): Stable Sex Ratios Across 22 Degrees of a Latitudinal Gradient". Frontiers in Marine Science. 7. doi:10.3389/fmars.2020.00348. ISSN 2296-7745.
  9. ^ a b Fusco G, Minelli A (2019-10-10). The Biology of Reproduction. Cambridge University Press. pp. 132–133. ISBN 978-1-108-49985-9.
  10. ^ Pontarotti P (2011-07-20). Evolutionary Biology – Concepts, Biodiversity, Macroevolution and Genome Evolution. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 36. ISBN 978-3-642-20763-1.
  11. ^ Casimiro-Soriguer R, Herrera J, Talavera S (March 2013). "Andromonoecy in an Old World Papilionoid legume, Erophaca baetica". Plant Biology. 15 (2): 353–9. doi:10.1111/j.1438-8677.2012.00648.x. PMID 22823201.
  12. ^ Pugnaire F, Valladares F (2007-06-20). Functional Plant Ecology. CRC Press. p. 524. ISBN 978-1-4200-0762-6.
  13. ^ a b Ramawat KG, Merillon JM, Shivanna KR (2016-04-19). Reproductive Biology of Plants. CRC Press. p. 62. ISBN 978-1-4822-0133-8.
  14. ^ a b Villarreal JC, Renner SS (November 2013). "Correlates of monoicy and dioicy in hornworts, the apparent sister group to vascular plants". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 13 (1): 239. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-13-239. PMC 4228369. PMID 24180692.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  15. ^ a b King RC, Stansfield WD, Mulligan PK (2007). "Gonochorism". A Dictionary of Genetics. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acref/9780195307610.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-530761-0. Retrieved 2021-07-28.
  16. ^ Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Biology. Vol. 2. Academic Press. 2016-04-14. p. 212. ISBN 978-0-12-800426-5.
  17. ^ Leonard JL (October 2013). "Williams' paradox and the role of phenotypic plasticity in sexual systems". Integrative and Comparative Biology. 53 (4): 671–88. doi:10.1093/icb/ict088. PMID 23970358.
  18. ^ Allaby M (2006). "Gynomonoecious". A Dictionary of Plant Sciences. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acref/9780198608912.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-860891-2.
  19. ^ Martínez-Gómez P (2019-07-11). Plant Genetics and Molecular Breeding. MDPI. p. 442. ISBN 978-3-03921-175-3.
  20. ^ Lüttge, Ulrich; Cánovas, Francisco M.; Matyssek, Rainer (2016-05-27). Progress in Botany 77. Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-25688-7.
  21. ^ Bahadur B, Sujatha M, Carels N (2012-12-14). Jatropha, Challenges for a New Energy Crop: Volume 2: Genetic Improvement and Biotechnology. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 27–28. ISBN 978-1-4614-4915-7.
  22. ^ Willmer P (2011-07-05). Pollination and Floral Ecology. Princeton University Press. p. 85. ISBN 978-1-4008-3894-3.
  23. ^ a b c Beentje, Henk (2016). The Kew Plant Glossary (second ed.). Richmond, Surrey: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. ISBN 978-1-84246-604-9.
  24. ^ Putz, Francis E.; Mooney, Harold A. (1991). The Biology of Vines. Cambridge University Press. p. 411. ISBN 978-0-521-39250-1.
  25. ^ Greenwood, Paul J.; Greenwood, Greenwood, Paul John; Harvey, Paul H.; Harvey, Reader in Biology Department of Zoology Paul H.; Slatkin, Montgomery; Slatkin, Professor of Integrative Biology Montgomery; Cambridge, University of (1985-07-11). Evolution: Essays in Honour of John Maynard Smith. CUP Archive. p. 240. ISBN 978-0-521-25734-3.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  26. ^ Leonard, Janet L. (2019-05-21). Transitions Between Sexual Systems: Understanding the Mechanisms of, and Pathways Between, Dioecy, Hermaphroditism and Other Sexual Systems. Springer. p. 14. ISBN 978-3-319-94139-4.
  27. ^ Leonard J, Cordoba-Aguilar A (2010-07-19). The Evolution of Primary Sexual Characters in Animals. Oxford University Press, USA. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-19-532555-3.
  28. ^ Leonard JL (2019-05-21). Transitions Between Sexual Systems: Understanding the Mechanisms of, and Pathways Between, Dioecy, Hermaphroditism and Other Sexual Systems. Springer. p. 23. ISBN 978-3-319-94139-4.
  29. ^ Albert B, Morand-Prieur MÉ, Brachet S, Gouyon PH, Frascaria-Lacoste N, Raquin C (October 2013). "Sex expression and reproductive biology in a tree species, Fraxinus excelsior L". Comptes Rendus Biologies. 336 (10): 479–85. doi:10.1016/j.crvi.2013.08.004. PMID 24246889.
  30. ^ Atwell BJ, Kriedemann PE, Turnbull CG (1999). Plants in Action: Adaptation in Nature, Performance in Cultivation. Macmillan Education AU. p. 244. ISBN 978-0-7329-4439-1.
  31. ^ Cardoso-Gustavson P, Demarco D, Carmello-Guerreiro SM (2011-08-06). "Evidence of trimonoecy in Phyllanthaceae: Phyllanthus acidus". Plant Systematics and Evolution. 296 (3): 283–286. doi:10.1007/s00606-011-0494-3. ISSN 1615-6110. S2CID 13226982.
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