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[[Image:Grabmaljohannes13.jpg|thumb|right|Tomb of Antipope John XXIII]] |
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The '''Tomb of Antipope John XXIII''' is the [[marble]] [[tomb]] [[Church monument|monument]] for [[Antipope John XXIII]], Baldassare Cossa (c. 1360–1419), created by [[Donatello]] and [[Michelozzo]] for the [[Florence Baptistry]] adjacent to [[Florence Cathedral]]. It was commissioned by the executors of Cossa's will after his death on [[December 22]], [[1419]] and completed during the 1420s, establishing it as one of the early landmarks of [[History of Florence#Renaissance Florence|Renaissance Florence]]. According to [[Ferdinand Gregorovius]], the tomb is "at once the sepulchre of the [[Western Schism|Great Schism]] in the church and the last Papal tomb which is outside Rome itself".<ref>Lightbown, 1980, p. 4.</ref> |
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Cossa had a long history of cooperation with Florence, which had viewed him as the legitimate pontiff for a time during the [[Western Schism]]. The tomb monument is often interpreted as an attempt to strengthen the legitimacy of Cossa's pontificate by linking him to the spiritually powerful site of the Baptistry.<ref>Lightbown, 1980, p. 16l; Caplow, 1977, p. 107.</ref> The evocation of papal symbolism on the tomb and the linkage between Cossa and Florence have been interpreted as a snub to Cossa's successor [[Pope Martin V]]<ref>Lightbown, 1980, p. 16l; Caplow, 1977, p. 107.</ref> or vicarious "[[Medici]] self-promotion", as such a tomb would have been deemed unacceptable for a Florentine citizen.<ref>McHam, 1989, p. 156; Strocchia, 1992, p. 142.</ref> |
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The tomb monument's design included [[Theological virtues|three Virtues]], Cossa's [[Coat of arms|family arms]], a gilded bronze [[effigy]] supported above an inscription-bearing [[sarcophagus]], a [[Madonna and Child]] in a [[Lunette|half-lunette]], and a [[Baldachin|canopy]]. At the time of its completion, the monument was the tallest sculpture in Florence,<ref name="l26"/> and one of very few tombs within the Baptistry or the neighboring Cathedral.<ref name="l24"/> The tomb monument was the first of several collaborations between Donatello and Michelozzo, and the attribution of its various elements to each of them has been debated by [[art historian]]s, as have the interpretations of its design and [[iconography]]. |
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==Antipope John XXIII== |
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[[Image:Johannes XXIII Gegenpapst.jpg|thumb|right|[[Antipope John XXIII]]]] |
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{{main|Antipope John XXIII}} |
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[[Antipope John XXIII]] had a complicated life, legacy, and relationship with Florence. Baldassare Cossa was a [[Naples|Neapolitan]] nobleman who grew up in [[Bologna]]. [[Pope Boniface IX]] elevated Cossa to the [[Archdiocese of Bologna]] in 1396 and made him a [[cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinal]] in 1402. After the [[Council of Pisa]] in 1409, Cossa encouraged rebellion against [[Pope Gregory XII]], who refused to resign. Cossa was deprived of his cardinalate, but it was restored by [[Pope Alexander V]], who had been elected by the council.<ref>Lightbown, 1980, p. 4; Caplow, 1977, pp. 98–99.</ref> |
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Cossa succeeded Alexander V as John XXIII in 1410. John XXIII was acknowledged as pope by [[France]], [[England]], [[Bohemia]], [[Prussia]], [[Portugal]], parts of the [[Holy Roman Empire]], and numerous Northern Italian city states, including Florence and [[Venice]]; however, the [[Avignon Pope Benedict XIII]] was regarded as pope by the [[Kingdom of Aragon|Kingdoms of Aragon]], [[Kingdom of Castile|Castile]], and [[Kingdom of Scotland|Scotland]] and Gregory XII was still favored by [[Ladislas of Naples]], [[Carlo I Malatesta]], the [[List of rulers of Bavaria|princes of Bavaria]], [[Louis III, Elector Palatine|Louis III,]] [[Electoral Palatinate|Elector Palatine]], and parts of Germany and [[Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569)|Poland]].<ref>Lightbown, 1980, pp. 4–5.</ref> |
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When Ladislas of Naples conquered Rome in 1413, John XXIII was forced to flee to Florence. He was compelled by [[Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor]], to convoke the [[Council of Constance]] in 1414, although when the threat to his pontificate and possibly his person became apparent, he fled in 1415. Although he expected his departure would disperse the council, the members of which he called to join him under the protection of [[Frederick IV, Duke of Austria]], it continued to operate where they were. As John XXIII tried to make his way towards the territory of [[John the Fearless|John II]], [[Duke of Burgundy]], Frederick IV surrendered him to the custody of Sigismund and the Council, and he was imprisoned by Louis III.<ref>Lightbown, 1980, pp. 5–6.</ref> |
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[[Image:Martin V.jpg|thumb|right|[[Pope Martin V]], elected by the [[Council of Constance]], which deposed John XXIII]] |
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In the meantime, the Council deposed John XXIII on [[May 29]], [[1415]] and elected [[Pope Martin V]] on [[November 11]], [[1417]]; Martin V proceeded to Florence in February 1419.<ref>Strocchia, 1992, p. 137; Lightbown, 1980, p. 5.</ref> Cossa was ransomed by the [[Republic of Florence]] in 1419 (Louis III had abandoned the allegiance of Sigismund in 1417), as orchestrated by [[Giovanni di Bicci de' Medici]].<ref>McHam, 1989, p. 153.</ref> His ransom may have been a reward for past assistance to Florence, or a manoeuver to put pressure on Martin V (still in Florence; he would arrive in Rome in September 1420), or both.<ref>McHam, 1989, p. 154.</ref> Cossa had helped Florence conquer [[Pisa]] in 1405 in his capacity as [[Papal legate]] to Bologna and, as pope, had designated the [[Medici bank]] as the depository-general for the papal finances.<ref>Strocchia, 1992, p. 136.</ref> |
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In Florence, Cossa submitted to Martin V on [[June 14]], [[1419]] and was rewarded with a cardinal’s hat on [[June 26]], only to die on [[December 22]].<ref>Caplow, 1977, pp. 99–100.</ref> Although given the title of Cardinal Bishop of [[Tusculum]], Cossa called himself "Cardinal of Florence".<ref>Strocchia, 1992, p. 137.</ref> |
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====Funeral==== |
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Cossa’s body was moved to the Baptistry and the nine-day funeral, as prescribed by the ''Ordo Romanus'', was well-attended by the Florentine elite and the papal court.<ref>Caplow, 1977, p. 100.</ref> Cossa’s corpse was crowned with a white [[mitre]] with his cardinal’s hat at his feet on the funerary bier during the rituals, which took place entirely within the Baptistry and Cathedral.<ref>McHam, 1989, pp. 154–5; Strocchia, 1992, p. 138; Lightbown, 1980, p. 44.</ref> The first three days of ceremonies celebrated in turn Cossa’s role as cardinal and pope, his role as an ally of Florence, and his role as a private citizen.<ref>Strocchia, 1992, p. 139.</ref> He received a temporary burial until the tomb was complete.<ref>Lightbown, 1980, p. 14.</ref> |
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==Commissioning== |
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[[Image:Jeanbaptiste.jpg|thumb|right|Cossa willed a relic believed to be the right [[index finger]] of [[John the Baptist]] to the Baptistry.]] |
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The commissioning of Cossa's tomb monument was negotiated for about a decade following Cossa’s death. Cossa’s [[will (law)|last will and testament]]—written on his death bed on [[December 22]], [[1419]]—made several of the customary Florentine civic bequests, acts of charity, and traditional ecclesiastical courtesies, but the bulk of his estate was left to his nephews Michele and Giovanni.<ref>Lightbown, 1980, pp. 8–9.</ref> The bequests to his nephews took priority, and his estate remained disputed by various creditors while the tomb was being completed.<ref>Lightbown, 1980, pp. 14–15.</ref> |
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Cossa designated four prominent Florentines as his executors: Bartolommeo di Taldo Valori, Niccolò da Uzzano, [[Giovanni di Bicci de' Medici]], and Vieri Guadagni,<ref>Janson, 1963, p. 59.</ref> allowing any two of the executors to act on behalf of all four, as Valori and Medici appear to have done.<ref>Lightbown, 1980, pp. 20–21.</ref> Valori died on [[September 2]], [[1427]], by which time Guadagni was also deceased and Uzzano had long lost interest, leaving the remaining work of commissioning entirely to Giovanni, or—more likely—[[Cosimo de' Medici]].<ref>Lightbown, 1980, p. 22.</ref> |
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The executors claimed that Cossa had revealed his desire for burial in the Baptistry to them but had been too modest to request it in his will.<ref>McHam, 1989, pp. 155–6.</ref> Most later scholars accept this testimony of the executors, attributing Cossa with "tact—and tactics", although at least one has postulated that the executors chose the site of the Baptistry against Cossa’s wishes.<ref>Janson, 1963, p. 61.</ref> |
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Documentary records indicate that, on [[January 9]], [[1421]], [[Palla Strozzi]], on behalf of the [[:it:Arte dei Mercatanti o di Calimala|Arte di Calimala]], the [[guild]] who were responsible for the upkeep of the Baptistry, authorized a "''breve et honestissima''" ("small and inconspicuous") monument in the Baptistry, but not the [[chapel]] requested by Cossa’s will; present scholarship accepts Strozzi’s assertion that burial within the Baptistry was a considerable honor, perhaps beyond the status of Cossa.<ref>Janson, 1963, p. 59; Caplow, 1977, p. 103.</ref> After this meeting, there are no extant records from the Calimala regarding the tomb as the bulk of documents from the 1420s have been lost,<ref>Lightbown, 1980, p. 16.</ref> although the notes of Senatore [[Carlo Strozzi]], who went through the records, are extant.<ref>Lightbown, 1980, p. 20.</ref> |
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The Calimala’s acquiescence is traditionally explained by Cossa’s donation of the [[relic]] of the right [[index finger]] of [[John the Baptist]] (and 200 [[Italian coin florin|florins]] for an appropriate [[reliquary]]) to the Baptistry.<ref>Caplow, 1977, pp. 101–102; Strocchia, 1992, p. 138.</ref> With this finger John was believed to have pointed to [[Jesus]], saying "[[Agnus Dei|Ecce Agnus Dei]]" ("Behold the lamb of God") {{bibleverse||John|1:29|KJV}}. The long and complicated history of the relic would only have increased the legendary status of the finger: [[Patriarch Philotheus I of Constantinople|Philotheus Kokkinos]], [[Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople|Patriarch of Constantinople]] presented it in 1363 to [[Pope Urban V]], who passed it to his successors [[Pope Gregory XI|Gregory XI]] and [[Pope Urban VI|Urban VI]], who was dispossessed of it during the siege of [[Nocera Inferiore|Nocera]], after which [[John XXII]] bought it for 800 florins and wore it on his person before hiding it in the monastery of Santa Maria degli Angioli.<ref>Lightbown, 1980, pp. 9–10.</ref> |
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==Completion== |
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[[Image:Sangiovennniinner.jpg|thumb|The Tomb was designed to integrate with the interior of the [[Florence Baptistry]].]] |
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The chronology of the tomb monument's completion is not precisely known, but portions can be determined from various sources. According to the passing reference of a Florentine [[Civil law notary|notary]], in 1424 (by the [[Florentine calendar]]) part of the tomb was installed.<ref>Lightbown, 1980, p. 19.</ref> Michelozzo’s ''[[Catasto]]'' from July 1427 indicates that Michelozzo had been Donatello’s partner for about two years ("''due anni o incircha''") and that three-fourths of the 800 florin budget had been spent.<ref>Caplow, 1977, pp. 105–108; Grassi, 1964, p. 69.</ref> To harmonize these accounts, one must conclude either that Michelozzo’s chronology was imprecise, that Donatello received the commission before the partnership was formed, or that the 1424 date in the Florentine calendar falls in 1425 in the modern calendar.<ref>Janson, 1964, pp. 59–62.</ref> |
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On [[February 2]], [[1425]], Bartolomeo Valori and Cosimo de' Medici requested 400 of the 800 florins that had been deposited with the [[:it:Arte dei Mercatanti o di Calimala|Calimala]], likely for work already completed.<ref>Caplow, 1977, p. 104.</ref> This deposit was insurance in case the executors left the tomb unfinished and the Calimala was forced to pay for its completion, as it had been obliged to with the finger reliquary.<ref>Lightbown, 1980, p. 21.</ref> This request is also the most direct piece of evidence for Cosimo’s involvement with the commissioning. Despite this document, [[Vasari]]’s claim in his [[Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects|Vite]] of 1550 that Cosimo was responsible for the handling of the commission has been questioned.<ref>Vasari, ''Vite'', ed. Milanesi, ii, 1878, p. 399. Cited by Caplow, 1977, p. 106; McHam, 1989, p. 156; Lightbown, 1980, p. 18.</ref> |
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It is probable that the sarcophagus was installed on or shortly before [[May 2]], [[1426]], when the Calimala contracted for two [[chaplain]]s to say a daily mass for Cossa’s soul.<ref>Lightbown, 1980, p. 21.</ref> The records of the Cathedral workshop indicate that on [[January 28]], [[1427]] Valori bought four white marble blocks for the tomb.<ref>Janson, 1963, p. 59; Caplow, 1977, pp. 104–105.</ref> |
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The exact date of completion is unknown but an extreme ''[[Terminus post quem|terminus ante quem]]'' is given by the death in 1431 of Pope Martin, who is known to have visited the completed tomb; other factors may push the ''terminus ante quem'' back significantly into the 1420s.<ref>Caplow, 1977, pp. 116–119; McHam, 1989, p. 157; Strocchia, 1992, p. 134.</ref> The most reliable such indication is that in September 1428 [[Jacopo della Quercia]] returned to Bologna and produced a wall tomb with [[Virtues]] reflecting in minute details the Cossa Virtues.<ref>Janson, 1963, p. 63.</ref> |
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Vasari suggests that the tomb went over budget, costing 1,000 florins, although it is unclear who covered the excess.<ref>Caplow, 1977, p. 116; Lightbown, 1980, p. 23. This claim is also made by Del Migliore, 1684, ''Firenze città nobilissima''.</ref> Although the original source for this claim is unknown, it has gained credence with modern scholars as the effigy alone would have cost 500 florins,<ref>Janson, 1963, p. 62.</ref> yet its exactness may be taken with a grain of salt.<ref>Lightbown, 1980, p. 23.</ref> |
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==Design== |
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The Baptistry already contained three [[sarcophagi]]: those of Bishop Ranieri (d. 1113) and two reused Roman sarcophagi.<ref>Lightbown, 1980, p. 16, 24.</ref> However, the tomb monument at {{convert|7.32|m|ft|2}} in height was easily the tallest monument in the Baptistry, and—at the time—in Florence.<ref name="l26">Lightbown, 1980, p. 26.</ref> The [[Florence Cathedral|Duomo]] contains few tombs, with some notable exceptions, such as that of Aldobrandino Ottobuoni.<ref name="l24">Lightbown, 1980, p. 24.</ref> |
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The tomb monument adapted to the conditions imposed by the Calimala and integrated with the interior of the Baptistry. The [[wall tomb]] was required to be placed between two pre-existing [[Corinthian order|Corinthian column]]s—the central pillars between [[Ghiberti]]’s North Doors and the eastern [[tribune]]—constituting one-third of one of the octagonal walls, near the altar and facing Ghiberti’s East Doors.<ref>Caplow, 1977, p. 120; Lightbown, 1980, p. 24; McHam, "Donatello’s Tomb of Pope John XXIII", p. 147.</ref> The setting starves the tomb monument of light, especially when the Baptistry’s doors are closed, which is normally the case.<ref>Caplow, 1977, p. 120.</ref> It would be even darker were it not for the "screen" back wall protruding {{convert|48.4|cm|in|1}} from the Baptistry wall.<ref>Caplow, 1977, p. 121.</ref> The white and brown (and whitish-brown) marble further integrates the structure with the [[polychromatic]] white and green of the Baptistry interior.<ref>McHam, 1989, p. 149; Lightbown, 1980, p. 26.</ref> Some scholars accept the colored sketch of Buonaccorso Ghirberti as evidence that the "original effaced polychromy" of the tomb was more integrated,<ref>Janson, 1963, p. 61.</ref> although others contend that the sketch is too inaccurate.<ref>Lightbown, 1980, pp. 30–31.</ref> The canopy’s interaction with the columns and [[conceit]] of being supported by the Baptistry cornice make the tomb monument further "wedded to the architecture" around it, even if the marriage is [[morganatic]].<ref>McHam, 1989, p. 163.</ref> Apart from the effigy on the sarcophagus, all the other sculpted figures are in [[high relief]]. |
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[[Image:Venezia - Chiesa dei SS. Giovanni e Paolo (S. Zanipolo) - Foto G. Dall'Orto 2 lug 2006 - 13.jpg|thumb|The closely contemporary Venetian tomb of [[Doge of Venice|Doge]] [[Tommaso Mocenigo]], of 1423, provides an interesting comparison; see text]] |
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[[Image:TombaGiovanni.jpg|thumb|Frontal view of the tomb]] |
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Although the style of the work is thoroughly classicising, the overall form reflects the grandest type of the medieval Italian wall tomb, in which the vertical piling-up of a series of different elements is characteristic.<ref>Levey, 1996, pp. 151-153.</ref> Italian Gothic sculpture always retained considerable elements of classicism, and it was not necessary for Donatello and Michelozzo to adopt a radically original overall scheme from those of [[Tino di Camaino]] (c. 1285–1337), the [[Siena|Siennese]] sculptor whose wall-tombs of a century before had been very influential throughout Italy. A life-size marble effigy lying on top of an elevated protuding sarcophagus is highly typical. The motif of curtains at the top is often found in monuments using Gothic decorative details, and the shape recalls the triangular [[gable]] tops of monuments in a more thoroughly Gothic style; other monuments have curtains, often held open by angels, around the effigy, and then sculptures above.<ref>Pope-Hennessy, pp. 15–19 and 183–186.</ref> The Cossa monument is often compared to the monument to [[Doge of Venice|Doge]] [[Tommaso Mocenigo]] of Venice, of 1423, which has high relief saints in shell niches on and above the sarcophagus, above which a large pair of curtains sweep up to a single terminal; however the architectural detailing here is Gothic.<ref>Pope-Hennessy, p. 46 and fig. 89.</ref> The design of the Cossa tomb itself was elaborated on, and adapted to local conventions, in the tomb by the same team for Cardinal Brancacci in Naples,<ref>John T. Paoletti, Gary M. Radke; ''Art in Renaissance Italy'', 2005, pp. 242–243, Laurence King Publishing, ISBN 1856694399</ref> and influenced the monument to [[Leonardo Bruni]] by [[Bernardo Rossellino]], of about 20 years later, in the [[Basilica of Santa Croce, Florence]].<ref>[[Michael Levey|Levey, Michael]]; ''Early Renaissance'', p. 57-59, 1967, Penguin</ref> |
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===Base=== |
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The base slap, or [[Pylon (architecture)|pylon]], of the tomb monument rests on a {{convert|38|cm|in|0|sing=on}} high [[plinth]], separated by a [[cornice]] and [[wiktionary:Concave|concave]] [[Molding (decorative)|moulding]]s. The pylon is {{convert|1.39|m|ft|2}} high and {{convert|2.02|m|ft|2}} wide, decorated with a [[frieze]] of winged angel heads (perhaps [[seraphim]]) and [[garland]]s and ribbons.<ref>Lightbown, 1980, p. 26.</ref> |
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===Virtues=== |
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Above the pylon, separated by the cornice, are the three [[Virtues]]—from left to right, [[Faith]], [[Charity (virtue)|Charity]], and [[Hope (virtue)|Hope]]—in shell niches, separated by four [[Corinthian order|Corinthian]] [[pilaster|fluted pilasters]]. Such a motif is unprecedented in [[Tuscan]] funerary sculpture but found at this date in [[Venice]], [[Padua]],<ref>Janson, 1963, p. 62.</ref> and especially Cossa’s native [[Naples]].<ref>Lightbown, 1980, pp. 39–40.</ref> As a result, excursions to Venice have been suggested for both Michelozzo<ref>Caplow, 1977, p. 114.</ref> and Donatello<ref>Lightbown, 1980, p. 50.</ref>. However, Janson suggests that one "need not go all the way to Venice" to find such motifs.<ref>Janson, 1963, p. 62.</ref> Outside Florence, Virtues were common on tombs, with the [[cardinal Virtues]] used for [[laymen]], and the [[theological virtues]] reserved for ecclesiastics, including the [[Brancaccio]] tomb.<ref>Lightbown, 1980, pp. 25–27.</ref> However, the Cossa Virtues, from their hair to their sandals, are more thoroughly antique.<ref>Lightbown, 1980, p. 38.</ref> Donatello also produced two similar bronze Virtues for the [[Siena Cathedral#Baptistry|Siena Baptistry]], whose chronological relationship to the Cossa Virtues is unclear.<ref>Caplow, 1977, p. 134.</ref> |
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The {{convert|1.05|m|ft|2|sing=on}} tall Faith, to the right of Charity, is holding a [[Eucharist]]ic [[chalice]]; the {{convert|1.07|m|ft|2|sing=on}} tall Charity is holding a [[cornucopia]] and a [[brazier]] (or flaming vase); and the {{convert|1.06|m|ft|2|sing=on}} tall Hope, to the left of Charity, has hands clasped in [[prayer]].<ref>Lightbown, 1980, p. 37.</ref> The central figure of Charity is the most antique, assimilating elements of Classical depictions of [[Abundantia]], [[Ceres]], and [[Juno]], all of which were depicted with cornucopias in their left hands.<ref>Caplow, 1977, p. 133; Lightbown, 1980, p. 37.</ref> Besides underscoring the antiquity of the tomb monument, the main purpose of the tall yet poorly finished Virtues is to put additional vertical distance between the viewer and the effigy, which has the cumulative effect of de-emphasizing the peculiarities of Cossa, in favor of a generic pontiff (i.e. a potential line of Florentine popes), by blunting the "immediacy" of the trope of [[lying in state]], which was otherwise dominant on [[Quattrocento]] wall tombs.<ref>McHam, 1989, p. 157.</ref> |
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===Sarcophagus and inscription=== |
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Above the Virtues, four classical [[Corbel|consoles]] decorated with [[acanthus (ornament)|acanthus]] leaves support the sarcophagus. In the [[Triptych|tripartite]] space between the consoles—from left to right—are Cossa’s family arms with the [[papal tiara]], the papal [[coat of arms]], and Cossa’s family arms with the cardinal’s hat.<ref>Lightbown, 1980, p. 27.</ref> The ''rilievo schiacciato'' (a type of very shallow [[bas-relief]] pioneered by Donatello) on the [[architrave]] sarcophagus ({{convert|2.12|m|ft|2|sing=on}} wide and {{convert|0.7|m|ft|2|sing=on}} high) depicts two [[putto|putti]] or spiratelli ("little spirits") holding open a large inscribed [[parchment]], perhaps in the style of a [[papal brief]].<ref>Lightbown, 1980, p. 28.</ref> The putti (or spiratelli) share many characteristics with their ancient counterparts, except for their crossed legs.<ref>Caplow, 1977, p. 135.</ref> |
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{{col-start}} |
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{{col-2}} |
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The inscription reads:<ref>Lightbown, 1980, p. 19.</ref> |
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<center> |
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IOAN''n''ES QVO''n''DAM PAPA<br> |
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XXIII''us''. OBIIT FLORENTIE A<br> |
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N''n''O D''omi''NI MCCCCXVIIII XI<br> |
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KALENDAS IANVARII |
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</center> |
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{{col-2}} |
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Which translates to: |
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<center> |
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John the former pope<br> |
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XXIII. Died in Florence<br> |
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A.D. 1419, 11<br> |
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days before the Kalends of January |
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</center> |
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{{col-end}} |
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Pope Martin V objected to a portion of the inscription—"IOAN''n''ES QVO''n''DAM PAPA"—because he thought it implied Cossa had died as pope (the [[Latin]] "quondam" could mean either "the former" or the "the late"). The use of "olim Papa", as was common in many contemporary documents, instead of "quondam Papa" would probably have removed Martin V’s objections.<ref>Lightbown, 1980, p. 20.</ref> Martin himself suggested instead that Cossa be identified as a Neapolitan cardinal, thus emphasizing instead his submission.<ref>Caplow, 1977, p. 105; McHam, 1989, p. 149.</ref> Contemporary sources report that the [[Signoria of Florence|Signoria]] mimicked the reply of [[Pontius Pilate]] regarding the inscription on the cross of Christ: "What is written, is written."<ref>McHam, 1989, p. 159.</ref> Martin V himself was buried underneath an undecorated bronze floor slab,<ref>McHam, 1989, p. 161.</ref> the only known example of a two-dimensional papal monument,<ref>Panofsky, 1964, p. 72.</ref> although also the first to be set in the central nave of a major basilica, the [[Basilica of St. John Lateran]] in Rome,<ref>Gardner, 1992, p. 62; Lightbown, 1980, p. 25.</ref> and cast in bronze—probably also by Donatello.<ref>Meyer, 1904, p. 76; Lightbown, 1980, p. 46.</ref> |
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According to Avery, Donatello’s ''Ascension of Christ and the Giving of the Keys to St. Peter'' may have been intended to share the front of the sarcophagus,<ref>Avery, 1994, pp. 36–39.</ref> further strengthening the papal associations, which were created by dating Cossa’s death using the ancient Roman [[Kalends]] of January, which was uncommon on Florentine tombs, but was used in papal ones.<ref>McHam, 1989, pp. 163–4.</ref> |
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===Effigy=== |
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[[Image:Marzocco di donatello.JPG|thumb|right|The ''Marzocco'' was a symbol of Florentine rule.]] |
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On top of the sarcophagus, the [[bier]] of the effigy is supported by [[lion]]s whose shape mimics [[Trecento]] consoles.<ref>Caplow, 1977, p. 122.</ref> The lions may be based on the Florentine ''[[:it:Marzocco (simbolo)|Marzocco]]'', as if to mark John XXIII in the same manner as a conquered city-state. As Donatello’s ''Marzocco'' for the papal apartment in [[Santa Maria Novella]] conveyed Florence’s ambivalence towards Martin V (as both a source of prestige by visiting, and a potential adversary of the Republic), the lions supporting the bier contextualize the tomb monument's support for John XXIII’s claim to the papacy by cementing it as a Florentine claim. Yet, any iconographical interpretation of the lions must be taken with a grain of salt as lions are symbolically promiscuous,<ref>McHam, 1989, p. 159.</ref> and are also seen as supports on earlier tombs, such as that of Lapo de’ Bardi (d. 1342) in the [[Bargello]].<ref>Lightbown, 1980, p. 42.</ref> |
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The bier and the pall spread over it are tilted towards the viewer with the lion supporting the head standing {{convert|2|cm|in|0|sing=on}} shorter, increasing the visibility of the [[effigy]], especially the head.<ref>Meyer, 1904, p. 63; Lightbown, 1980, p. 28.</ref> The [[gilding|gilded-bronze]], life-size effigy itself makes no attempt to argue for Cossa’s papal status, dressing Cossa clearly in the costume of a cardinal;<ref>Lightbown, 1980, p. 43; McHam, 1989, p. 159.</ref> the bedding it rests on is of un-gilt bronze. The opening in the 16th century of the sarcophagus confirmed that Cossa’s actual burial clothes matched the effigy.<ref>Lightbown, 1980, pp. 44–45.</ref> There was no precedent for a three-dimensional gilded-bronze effigy on an Italian tomb monument; there was, however, a {{convert|6|ft|m|2|sing=on}} gilt bronze statue on the balcony of the Palazzo della Briada in Bologna commissioned by [[Pope Boniface VIII]].<ref>McHam, 1989, p. 159.</ref> |
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Some scholars suggest that Donatello created the effigy with the aid of a [[death mask]],<ref>Lightbown, 1980, p. 44; Grassi, 1965, p. 70.</ref> but others disagree.<ref>Janson, 1963, p. 64.</ref> |
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===Canopy=== |
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Behind the effigy is a {{convert|1.34|m|ft|2|sing=on}} tripartite pylon with sunk molded borders supporting the cornice and framed by two additional Corinthian pilasters. Above it rests an [[entablature]] of the [[Madonna and Child]] on a [[Lunette|half-lunette]], a typical—symbolizing intercession—motif for a tomb.<ref>McHam, 1989, p. 149, 159.</ref> Above the effigy and Madonna is a gilt-edged architectonic canopy decorated with patterned stemmed flowers, giving the [[conceit]] of being supported by the ribbed brass ring, an impossibility given its weight. McHam<ref>McHam, 1989, p. 157.</ref> suggests that the canopy is based on the "Dome of Heaven", and thus the ''[[Baldachin|baldacchino]]'' of papal enthronement. However, Lightbown<ref>Lightbown, 1980, pp. 28–29.</ref> is emphatic that the double-summited canopy looped against the pillars is not a baldacchino, but rather a secular bed-canopy.<ref>Lightbown, 1980, p. 32.</ref> |
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==Attribution== |
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[[Image:Firenze.Baptistry06.JPG|thumb|right|The exterior of the Baptistry]] |
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[[Image:Uffizi Donatello.jpg|thumb|right|The tomb was the first collaboration between [[Donatello]] and [[Michelozzo]].]] |
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{{main|Donatello|Michelozzo}} |
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The tomb monument was the first collaboration between [[Donatello]] (1386–1466) and [[Michelozzo]] (1391–1472), who went on to collaborate on the tomb of Cardinal Rainaldo Brancacci in the Church of Sant’ Angelo a Nido in Naples, the tomb of [[Prefecture of the Pontifical Household|Papal Secretary]] Bartolommeo Aragazzi in what is now the [[Duomo]] of [[Montepulciano]], and the external pulpit of the Duomo of [[Prato]].<ref>Lightbown, 1980, pp. 2–3.</ref> At the time of their partnership, Donatello was already well-known for his statues of prophets and saints for the Duomo and [[Orsanmichele]], while Michelozzo was more obscure.<ref>Lightbown, 1980, p. 1.</ref> Both had worked for a time for Ghiberti, whose workshop then lead Florentine sculpture. |
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Nearly every element of the tomb monument has been attributed to both Donatello and Michelozzo by different [[art history|art historians]].<ref>Caplow, 1977, pp. 122–140; Janson, 1963, pp. 63–64; Lightbown, 1980, p. 18.</ref> These characterizations are mostly of [[historiography|historiographical]] interest: attribution to Donatello is more of an indication of what is valued by each commentator than any objective criteria; often, aspects are attributed to Michelozzo explicitly because they are "less well executed".<ref>Lightbown, 1980, p. 37.</ref> |
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Descriptions from 1475 to 1568 attribute all of the tomb except for the figure of Faith to Donatello.<ref>Caplow, 1977, p. 119.</ref> Some modern sources reverse this dichotomy, attributing all of the tomb to Michelozzo with the exception of the gilded bronze effigy.<ref>McHam, 1989, p. 157.</ref> Some sources credit Donatello only with the bronze effigy.<ref>Grassi, 1964, p. 69.</ref> According to Janson, of the marble work, only the ''[[putto|putti]]'' can be attributed to "Donatello’s own hand".<ref>Janson, 1963, p. 64.</ref> Donatello’s alleged deficiencies in casting or in architecture have been proposed as the reason for his partnership with Michelozzo,<ref>Janson, 1963, pp. 50–56, 63.</ref> in addition to his busy schedule.<ref>Lightbown, 1980, p. 33.</ref> |
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==Notes== |
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{{reflist|3}} |
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==References== |
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*Avery, Charles. 1994. ''Donatello: An Introduction''. New York: IconEditions. ISBN 9780064303118 |
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*Caplow, Harriet McNeal. 1977. ''Michelozzo''. New York: Garland Publishing, Inc. ISBN 9780824026783 |
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*Gardner, Julian. 1992. ''The Tomb and the Tiara''. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 9780198175100 |
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*Grassi, Luigi. Colacicchi, Paul (translator). 1964. ''All the Sculpture of Donatello''. New York: Hawthorn Books, Inc. OCLC 1039596 |
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*[[H. W. Janson|Janson, H.W.]] 1963. ''The Sculpture of Donatello''. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691035288 |
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*[[Michael Levey|Levey, Michael]]; ''Florence, A Portrait'', Jonathan Cape, 1996, ISBN 0712673105 |
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*Lightbown, R.W. 1980. ''Donatello & Michelozzo''. London: Harvey Miller. ISBN 0905203224 |
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*McHam, Sarah Blake. 1989. "Donatello’s Tomb of Pope John XXIII". In ''Life and Death in Fifteenth-Century Florence''. Ed. Tetel, Marcel, Witt, Ronald G., and Goffen, Rona. Durham: Duke University Press. pp. 146–173. ISBN 9780822308720 |
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*Meyer, Alfred Gotthold. Konody, P.G. (translator). 1904. ''Donatello''. Leipzig: Velhagen & Klasing. ([http://books.google.com/books?id=wXoAAAAAYAAJ&dq=&sa=X&oi=print&ct=book-ref-page-link Available online]) |
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*[[John Pope-Hennessy|Pope-Hennessy, John]], 1986 (revised ed.), ''Italian Gothic Sculpture'', Phaidon, ISBN 0714824151 |
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*[[Erwin Panofsky|Panofsky, Erwin]]. 1964. ''Tomb Sculpture''. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc. ISBN 0714828246 |
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*Strocchia, Sharon T. 1992. ''Death and Ritual in Renaissance Florence''. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press. ISBN 9789795330776 |
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==External links== |
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*[http://gallery.euroweb.hu/html/d/donatell/1_early/antipope/index.html Web gallery of art photos] |
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*[http://www.paradoxplace.com/Perspectives/Italian%20Images/Montages/Firenze/Baptistery.htm More photographs] |
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[[Category:Buildings and structures in Florence]] |
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[[Category:Renaissance sculptures]] |
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[[Category:Western Schism]] |
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{{featured article}} |
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Revision as of 03:57, 6 April 2008
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