Race and maternal health in the United States

Add links
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Maternal health outcomes differ significantly between racial groups within the United States. The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists describes these disparities in obstetric outcomes as "prevalent and persistent."[1] Black, indigenous, and people of color are disproportionately affected by many of the maternal health outcomes listed as national objectives in the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services's national health objectives program, Healthy People 2030.[2][3] The American Public Health Association considers maternal mortality to be a human rights issue, also noting the disparate rates of Black maternal death.[4] Race affects maternal health throughout the pregnancy continuum, beginning prior to conception and continuing through pregnancy (antepartum), during labor and childbirth (intrapartum), and after birth (postpartum).

There are multiple explanations for racial disparities in maternal health. Biological factors, such as higher rates of preexisting chronic disease prior to pregnancy, fail to fully account for differences in outcomes.[5] There is a lack of evidence to support a genetic difference between racial groups as a cause of maternal health disparities such as preterm birth.[6] Social factors, such as structural racism, have been suggested as a contributory cause of the wide racial disparities in maternal health in the United States.[7][8] Disparities in adverse pregnancy outcomes for Black women have been hypothesized to be related to higher loads of allostatic stress before and during pregnancy, epigenetic changes, and/or telomere shortening.[9] Studies of potential biomarkers of allostatic stress have failed to date to demonstrate the racial group differences seen with self-report measures.[9][10] Inequities in access and the provision of health care may also effect maternal outcomes.[5] The effects of implicit and explicit provider bias in obstetrical care has been poorly studied and may contribute to disparate outcomes.[11] The information health care providers share and how that information is presented affects the autonomy and decision-making of birthing women.[12]

Proposed interventions to reduce racial disparities in maternal health outcomes target changes at individual, health care system, and health care policy levels.[1] Some states are utilizing federal block grant money for initiatives targeting reductions in maternal morbidity and mortality for Black and Hispanic women.[13] Measurement, methodological, and ethical issues arise when using race in health outcomes research.[14][15] Recommendations for appropriate use of race as a research variable may limit use of white normative standards in the future, which can imply non-white people as being atypical.[16] Proposed alternative variables for race may be genetic ancestry, socioeconomic factors, or differential opportunities.[16]

Preconception[edit]

Unintended pregnancy[edit]

Overall, approximately 50% of pregnancies in the United States are unplanned, however Black and Hispanic women are more likely to have unplanned pregnancy than white women.[17] Unintended pregnancies are associated with increased risk of delayed entry into prenatal care,[18] decreased rates of breastfeeding after birth, increased risk of maternal depression, and increased risk of domestic abuse.[19] The cost of unintended pregnancy in the United States exceeded $20 billion in 2010.[20]

Social determinants of health[edit]

Environment[edit]

While limited research is available about the reproductive system effects of environmental pollutants, evidence from animal models indicates risks to humans.[21] Black families are more likely to live in neighborhoods with poorer air quality and higher rates of heavy metal contaminants.[22] Air pollution has been associated with increased risk of preterm birth.[22] Heavy metals such as lead and mercury are known neurotoxins and the developing fetal nervous system may be particularly vulnerable to excessive levels.[21] Exposure to organic pollutants prior to conception is linked to lower birth weight in infants.[23] One study of pesticide use in New York found the highest rate of exposure in Black women; pesticide exposure in pregnancy is associated with low birth weight and smaller head circumference.[24] The correlation between pesticide and pollutants on fetal growth restriction seen in Black women in New York City was not demonstrated among Dominican women living in the same neighborhoods, suggesting there may be a cultural modifier.[25][24]

Economic status[edit]

Strategies to improve pregnancy outcomes through behavioral interventions like folic acid supplementation and smoking cessation may be too little too late, as many women enter prenatal care several weeks into sensitive fetal development.[26] Optimizing preconception health is recommended by several professional organizations to optimize maternal health prior to pregnancy, particularly for women with chronic diseases.[27] Low income women, however, are less likely to have access to preconception and preventive health care.[28] Racial disparities in poverty adversely effect Black and Hispanic families.[29]

Chronic health conditions[edit]

Chronic hypertension prior to and during pregnancy is associated with increased risk of preeclampsia, eclampsia, placental abruption, stroke, cardiomyopathy, heart failure, pulmonary edema, renal failure, and maternal death.[30] Black women are more than twice as likely as white women to be diagnosed with chronic hypertension.[30] Black, Asian, and Pacific Islander women are more likely to have chronic hypertension that necessitates preterm delivery than white women.[31]

While less than 1% of births in the United States are effected by preexisting maternal diabetes, uncontrolled glycemic levels prior to and during pregnancy are associated with increased risk of congenital anomalies, preeclampsia, macrosomia, Cesarean birth, preterm birth, and stillbirth.[32] Even after adjusting for risk factors such as smoking, socioeconomic status, years of education, and body mass index (BMI), Black and Hispanic people have higher risk of developing diabetes than their white counterparts.[33] Asian people are also at higher risk of diabetes compared to white people, and subgroup analysis indicates that those who identify as South Asian (Indian, Pakistani, Sri Lankan, Bangladeshi, Nepali, or Bhutanese) have the highest prevalence of diabetes.[34] Evidence also suggests that Hispanic and Asian people are more likely to have undiagnosed diabetes and that Asian people are more likely to be diagnosed with diabetes at lower BMIs than other racial groups.[34]

Samoan, Hawaiian, Native American, Alaskan Native, Black, Mexican, Puerto Rican, Central American, and South American women are at higher risk of pre-pregnancy obesity.[35] Women with BMI greater than 40 during pregnancy are at increased risk for fetal cardiac defects and comorbidities such as hypertension, hyperlipidemia, and obstructive sleep apnea.[32]

Antepartum[edit]

Prenatal care[edit]

Black, Hispanic and Native American women are more likely to have late entry to prenatal care than white women.[36] One study found that Asian women under the age of 18 years old were the most likely to start prenatal care after the first trimester.[26] Black women are more likely to have less than five prenatal visits, which is associated with increased risk of maternal mortality.[36] Late entry to prenatal care and inadequate prenatal care are associated with increased likelihood of preterm birth, increased risk of low birthweight infants, and increased infant mortality.[37] Many of the quality measures included in indices of prenatal care lack established correlations to improved maternal health outcomes.[36]

Black, Hispanic and Native American women are more likely to report site-related barriers to receiving prenatal care, such as distance to the clinic and lack of transportation to appointments.[38] Black women are also more likely to report inconvenience as a barrier to care, such as longer appointment wait times.[38]

Pregnancy loss[edit]

Early pregnancy loss, miscarriage before the end of the 20th week of gestation, occurs in approximately 10-15% of all clinically confirmed pregnancies.[39] Racial differences in miscarriages between Black and white women are not seen in early pregnancy prior to 10 weeks estimated gestational age, however Black women are almost twice as likely as white women to experience pregnancy loss between 10 and 20 weeks estimated gestational age.[40] The Weathering Hypothesis, first described by Arline Geronimus, has been proposed as the neuroendocrine immune pathway by which Black women experience this higher rate of early pregnancy loss.[41][42]

Racial disparities in pregnancy loss after the completion of 20 weeks of gestation, or stillbirth, have been documented in the United States since at least as early as 1918.[43] Despite an overall decreasing rate of stillbirth nationally, Black women remain twice as likely as white women to experience fetal death.[44] This disparity persists after adjusting for sociodemographic and maternal health factors, suggesting that social factors, such as housing segregation, may play a role.[44] Stillbirth risks for Hispanic, Native American, and Alaskan Native women are higher than for white women, although not to the same extent as Black women.[43] Asian and Pacific Islander women have approximately the same risk of stillbirth as white women.[43]

Medical conditions in pregnancy[edit]

Black women are more likely than white women to have anemia during pregnancy, which has been associated with low birth weight infants, preterm birth, or both in some studies.[45] Racial disparities in incidence of anemia in pregnancy persist across socioeconomic groups.[45]

Asian women are more likely to be diagnosed with gestational diabetes during pregnancy than white women, regardless of BMI.[46] Studies of gestational diabetes often fail to distinguish between subgroups of Asian women or differentiate Pacific Islander women, however one study found that while Pacific Islander women were at increased risk of gestational diabetes compared to white women, their risk was less than that of Asian women.[46] While racial and ethnic groups including Hispanic, Native American, African, and Australian Aboriginal women are often reported to be at increased risk of developing gestational diabetes, racial disparities could be succinctly summarized as increased risk for women who identify as non-white.[47]

Black women are at increased risk of preeclampsia, a finding that is not fully explained by the increased incidence of chronic hypertension in that population.[48] Compared to other racial groups, Black women are also more likely to have serious complications of pre-eclampsia such as eclampsia, stroke, acute heart failure, pulmonary edema, and renal failure.[49] The increased incidence of preeclampsia in Black women seems to have a social or cultural component, as Black women born outside the United States and residing within the US for less than 10 years have a significantly less likelihood of developing pre-eclampsia than Black women born and living in the US.[50] After more than 10 years of living in the US this group difference based on place of birth is not significant.[50] Black women with preeclampsia are also more likely to have stillbirth than similar white women, while Hispanic women with preeclampsia do not have increased risk compared to similar white women.[51]

Intrapartum[edit]

Preterm birth[edit]

Black women in the United States are more likely than white women to give birth preterm, defined as less than 37 weeks estimated gestational age. This racial disparity is persistent for Black women across all levels of education, income, and insurance status.[52] Systemic racism likely plays a role in this increased risk for Black women, as evidenced by the finding that preterm birth disparities by race are higher in areas where more unarmed Black people are killed by police.[53] One study found that from 1971 to 2018 Black women were twice as likely to have given birth prematurely than white women.[54] During that same time, Black women were also more likely than white women to give birth extremely premature, defined as less than 28 weeks estimated gestational age.[54] The cost of preterm births in the US in 2016 exceeded $25 billion.[55] According to a recent study in the United States, black women are 50 percent more likely to experience preterm birth than white women and bout 14 percent of black babies are born premature, compared with just over 9 percent of white and Hispanic babies.[56]

Maternal experience of labor and birth[edit]

Surveys of women after childbirth find that Black women are more likely than Hispanic or white non-Hispanic women to report having been treated poorly in the hospital due to their race, ethnicity, language or culture.[57] Women of color are more likely to report mistreatment during childbirth, with Indigenous women more likely to describe mistreatment than either Black or Hispanic women.[58] Paternal race is also a risk factor for mistreatment during childbirth as white women with a Black partner are twice as likely as white women with a white partner to report mistreatment.[58]

Hispanic women are less likely than either Black or white women to receive epidural analgesia in labor, however it is unclear if the disparity is due to patient preference.[59]

Hispanic women are more likely to report feeling overwhelmed during childbirth compared to white or Black women.[60]

Mode of birth[edit]

Black women are 40% more likely to birth by Cesarean than white women after controlling for social, economic, medical, and hospital factors.[61] In addition, Black women have higher rates of Cesarean birth than American Indian, Alaskan Native, Asian, Native Hawaiian, Pacific Islander, or multiracial women.[62] Native American and Alaskan Native women have the lowest rates of Cesarean birth while Asian women have higher rates of Cesarean birth than all racial groups except Black women.[62]

Racial disparities are also apparent in indications for Cesarean birth. An analysis of births in Hawaii found that Micronesian women were more likely than white women to have a Cesarean birth for provider-subjective indications, such as non-reassuring fetal heart tones or labor dystocia.[63] Similarly, Black women are more likely to have a Cesarean birth for fetal distress or "other" indication than white women.[64]

Hispanic and Black women with previous Cesarean birth are less likely than white women to birth vaginally with subsequent pregnancies, a disparity which persisted after adjustment for obstetric, anthropometric, and demographic factors.[65] Repeat Cesarean birth is associated with greater maternal morbidity than vaginal birth and national guidelines support informed decision making for women desiring vaginal birth after Cesarean (VBAC).[66] Use of race to predict successful VBAC has been criticized as perpetuating racial disparities in mode of birth.[67]

Perineal lacerations frequently occur during vaginal birth, however Asian women are more likely than women of other racial groups to experience perineal trauma.[68] Asian and Pacific Islander women are also more likely to experience third and fourth degree perineal lacerations during birth.[69] Compared to white women, Black women are less likely to experience perineal lacerations.[70]

Severe maternal morbidity[edit]

Asian and Hispanic women are at disparate risk of postpartum hemorrhage due to uterine atony compared to other women.[71] Black women are more likely than white women to have severe maternal morbidity related to postpartum hemorrhage.[72] Black, Asian, and Pacific Islander women are at increased risk of hysterectomy due to postpartum hemorrhage compared to white or Hispanic women[72]

Cardiovascular severe maternal morbidity encompasses pre-existing conditions, such as valvular heart disease, and pregnancy-related conditions, such as pre-eclampsia and peripartum cardiomyopathy.[73] Black women are approximately twice as likely as white women and 1.5 times more likely than Hispanic women to be affected by cardiovascular maternal morbidity.[73]

Maternal mortality[edit]

Black women have 3.4 times the risk of maternal death from pregnancy complications compared to white women.[74] Black women over 40 years old have the highest risk of pregnancy-related deaths of any group, at 192 deaths per 100,000 live births.[74] Cardiomyopathy, thrombotic pulmonary embolism, and hypertensive disorders of pregnancy accounted for disproportionately more maternal deaths for Black women then white women.[75] Black women are more likely to die from postpartum hemorrhage than women from other racial groups.[72] Disparities in Black maternal mortality persist across all levels of education.[75] American Indian and Native Alaskan women also have a disparate risk of death from pregnancy-related complications that is 2.3 times the risk of white women.[75] American Indian and Native Alaskan women were more likely to die from infection and hypertensive disorders of pregnancy than white women.[75]

Postpartum care[edit]

Black and Hispanic women are more likely than white women to report moderate to severe pain postpartum and less likely to receive prescriptions for opioids upon discharge.[76] Medical professionals are less likely to listen to the concerns of pregnant African American women, which leads to them feeling less comfortable with the staff or discouraged to speak up. Sadly, this is something that occurs often around the country. Those who speak out their concerns are ignored and later die due to complications that could have been prevented. Which in turn leaves the child without their mother. It is a concern that happens more often than it should and greatly affects Black women more than their white counterparts. For example, 23 grand slam winner Serena Williams almost lost her life due to post-birth complications that the medical staff ignored. She knew something was wrong with her body but the staff dismissed her concerns and said she was confused. Williams continued to insist that something was wrong and they finally did a full check up on her body. It was revealed that she had several blood clots and during a surgery a hemorrhage was discovered. Black women continue to be deprived of the care they so desperately need. During the COVID-19 pandemic, new Black mothers showed signs of lagging adaption to the changing healthcare system which resulted in an increase in postpartum complications.[77] Black women are at increased risk of hospital readmission in the first 30 days after giving birth compared to white and Hispanic women.[78] Preeclampsia is also associated with greater likelihood of postpartum hospital readmission; Black women are at disparate risk of developing pre-eclampsia.[78]

Study findings of associations between self identification as Black or Hispanic and postpartum depression are mixed.[79] The experience of postpartum depression in women of color is likely complicated by discrimination, increased risk of adversities such as poverty, and decreased access to resources.[80][79] Native American women are at increased risk of postpartum depression compared to white women.[80]

Research on attendance of outpatient postpartum follow up visits and ongoing home care is mixed.[81] Some studies have found that Native American and Black women are less likely than white women to attend postpartum visits, while other research has found no racial differences.[82][83][84] Women's past experiences of racial discrimination and mistreatment over the course of pregnancy and birth, as well as system barriers such as returning to work, limited transportation, and access to insurance coverage, likely dissuade women from attending postpartum appointments.[82][85]

Contraception and Sterilization[edit]

Review of characteristics of women who received bilateral tubal ligation at the time of Cesarean birth shows Black women and women with Medicaid are more likely to undergo sterilization postpartum.[86] Provider bias in contraceptive counseling may influence women's choice of postpartum contraception, with Black and Hispanic women being more likely than white women to have long-acting reversible contraception recommended. Black and Hispanic women have also reported experiencing coercion in postpartum contraceptive counseling.[87] Historically, involuntary sterilization has targeted limiting the reproduction of minority women.[88] While legislative changes have outlawed compulsory sterilization in the United States, reports of coersion and unwanted sterilization among incarcerated and immigrant women continue.[89][90]

Breastfeeding[edit]

Initiation of breastfeeding, duration, and exclusivity of breastfeeding at 3 and 6 months shows significant racial disparities, with Black infants less likely to receive breastmilk than white infants.[91] Black women are twice as likely to receive formula samples after birth than white women, which may undermine breastfeeding efforts.[92] Native American infants are also less likely to be breastfed than white infants.[93] Since 2014 all Indian Health Service obstetric facilities are designated as Baby-Friendly in order to address this disparity.[94] Likely historical oppression and racist practices contribute to decreased breastfeeding rates in Black and Native American communities.[93]

References[edit]

  1. ^ a b "Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Obstetrics and Gynecology". www.acog.org. Retrieved 2021-05-04.
  2. ^ "Pregnancy and Childbirth - Healthy People 2030 | health.gov". health.gov. Retrieved 2021-04-13.
  3. ^ Pham, Olivia; Ranji, Usha (2020-11-10). "Racial Disparities in Maternal and Infant Health: An Overview - Issue Brief". KFF. Retrieved 2021-05-07.
  4. ^ "Reducing US Maternal Mortality as a Human Right". www.apha.org. Retrieved 2021-05-04.
  5. ^ a b Bryant, Allison S.; Worjoloh, Ayaba; Caughey, Aaron B.; Washington, A. Eugene (2010-04-01). "Racial/ethnic disparities in obstetric outcomes and care: prevalence and determinants". American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology. 202 (4): 335–343. doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2009.10.864. ISSN 0002-9378. PMC 2847630. PMID 20060513.
  6. ^ Burris, Heather H.; Wright, Clyde J.; Kirpalani, Haresh; Collins Jr, James W.; Lorch, Scott A.; Elovitz, Michal A.; Hwang, Sunah S. (January 2020). "The promise and pitfalls of precision medicine to resolve black–white racial disparities in preterm birth". Pediatric Research. 87 (2): 221–226. doi:10.1038/s41390-019-0528-z. ISSN 1530-0447. PMID 31382269. S2CID 199452590.
  7. ^ Liese, Kylea L.; Mogos, Mulubrhan; Abboud, Sarah; Decocker, Karen; Koch, Abigail R.; Geller, Stacie E. (2019-08-01). "Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Severe Maternal Morbidity in the United States". Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities. 6 (4): 790–798. doi:10.1007/s40615-019-00577-w. ISSN 2196-8837. PMID 30877505. S2CID 80617408.
  8. ^ HOWELL, ELIZABETH A.; AHMED, ZAINAB N. (January 2019). "Eight steps for narrowing the maternal health disparity gap". Contemporary Ob/Gyn. 64 (1): 30–36. ISSN 0090-3159. PMC 6822100. PMID 31673195.
  9. ^ a b Leimert, Kelycia B.; Olson, David M. (2020-02-01). "Racial disparities in pregnancy outcomes: genetics, epigenetics, and allostatic load". Current Opinion in Physiology. 13: 155–165. doi:10.1016/j.cophys.2019.12.003. ISSN 2468-8673.
  10. ^ Wallace, Maeve E.; Harville, Emily W. (2013-08-01). "Allostatic Load and Birth Outcomes Among White and Black Women in New Orleans". Maternal and Child Health Journal. 17 (6): 1025–1029. doi:10.1007/s10995-012-1083-y. ISSN 1573-6628. PMC 3504172. PMID 22833335.
  11. ^ Arvizo, Cynthia; Garrison, Etoi (October 2019). "Diversity and inclusion: the role of unconscious bias on patient care, health outcomes and the workforce in obstetrics and gynaecology". Current Opinion in Obstetrics and Gynecology. 31 (5): 356–362. doi:10.1097/GCO.0000000000000566. ISSN 1040-872X. PMID 31415246. S2CID 201018788.
  12. ^ Altman, Molly R.; Oseguera, Talita; McLemore, Monica R.; Kantrowitz-Gordon, Ira; Franck, Linda S.; Lyndon, Audrey (2019-10-01). "Information and power: Women of color's experiences interacting with health care providers in pregnancy and birth". Social Science & Medicine. 238: 112491. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.112491. ISSN 0277-9536. PMID 31434029. S2CID 201276858.
  13. ^ Ahn, Roy; Gonzalez, Grace P.; Anderson, Britta; Vladutiu, Catherine J.; Fowler, Erin R.; Manning, Leticia (2020-12-01). "Initiatives to Reduce Maternal Mortality and Severe Maternal Morbidity in the United States". Annals of Internal Medicine. 173 (11_Supplement): S3–S10. doi:10.7326/M19-3258. ISSN 0003-4819. PMID 33253021. S2CID 227240645.
  14. ^ Sue, Stanley; Dhindsa, Meenu K. (2006-08-01). "Ethnic and Racial Health Disparities Research: Issues and Problems". Health Education & Behavior. 33 (4): 459–469. doi:10.1177/1090198106287922. ISSN 1090-1981. PMID 16769755. S2CID 9216446.
  15. ^ Cooper, Richard S.; Nadkarni, Girish N.; Ogedegbe, Gbenga (2018-10-16). "Race, Ancestry, and Reporting in Medical Journals". JAMA. 320 (15): 1531–1532. doi:10.1001/jama.2018.10960. ISSN 0098-7484. PMID 30264132. S2CID 52878269.
  16. ^ a b Ioannidis, John P. A.; Powe, Neil R.; Yancy, Clyde (2021-02-16). "Recalibrating the Use of Race in Medical Research". JAMA. 325 (7): 623–624. doi:10.1001/jama.2021.0003. ISSN 0098-7484. PMID 33492329.
  17. ^ Kim, T. Y.; Dagher, R. K.; Chen, J. (2016-04-01). "Racial/Ethnic Differences in Unintended Pregnancy: Evidence From a National Sample of U.S. Women". American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 50 (4): 427–435. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2015.09.027. ISSN 0749-3797. PMID 26616306.
  18. ^ Mayer, Jeffrey P. (1997). "Unintended Childbearing, Maternal Beliefs, and Delay of Prenatal Care". Birth. 24 (4): 247–252. doi:10.1111/j.1523-536X.1997.00247.pp.x. ISSN 1523-536X. PMID 9460316.
  19. ^ Gipson, Jessica D.; Koenig, Michael A.; Hindin, Michelle J. (2008-03-01). "The Effects of Unintended Pregnancy on Infant, Child, and Parental Health: A Review of the Literature". Studies in Family Planning. 39 (1): 18–38. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4465.2008.00148.x. ISSN 1728-4465. PMID 18540521.
  20. ^ Sonfield, Adam; Kost, Kathryn (2015-02-01). "Public Costs from Unintended Pregnancies and the Role of Public Insurance Programs in Paying for Pregnancy-Related Care: National and State Estimates for 2010". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  21. ^ a b McDiarmid, Melissa A.; Gardiner, Paula M.; Jack, Brian W. (2008-12-01). "The clinical content of preconception care: environmental exposures". American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology. 199 (6): S357–S361. doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2008.10.044. ISSN 0002-9378. PMID 19081430.
  22. ^ a b Burris, Heather H.; Lorch, Scott A.; Kirpalani, Haresh; Pursley, DeWayne M.; Elovitz, Michal A.; Clougherty, Jane E. (2019-10-01). "Racial disparities in preterm birth in USA: a biosensor of physical and social environmental exposures". Archives of Disease in Childhood. 104 (10): 931–935. doi:10.1136/archdischild-2018-316486. ISSN 0003-9888. PMC 6732250. PMID 30850379.
  23. ^ Robledo Candace A.; Yeung Edwina; Mendola Pauline; Sundaram Rajeshwari; Maisog Jose; Sweeney Anne M.; Barr Dana Boyd; Louis Germaine M. Buck (2015-01-01). "Preconception Maternal and Paternal Exposure to Persistent Organic Pollutants and Birth Size: The LIFE Study". Environmental Health Perspectives. 123 (1): 88–94. doi:10.1289/ehp.1308016. PMC 4286275. PMID 25095280.
  24. ^ a b Perera, Frederica P; Rauh, Virginia; Tsai, Wei-Yann; Kinney, Patrick; Camann, David; Barr, Dana; Bernert, Tom; Garfinkel, Robin; Tu, Yi-Hsuan; Diaz, Diurka; Dietrich, Jessica (February 2003). "Effects of transplacental exposure to environmental pollutants on birth outcomes in a multiethnic population". Environmental Health Perspectives. 111 (2): 201–205. doi:10.1289/ehp.5742. ISSN 0091-6765. PMC 1241351. PMID 12573906.
  25. ^ Choi Hyunok; Rauh Virginia; Garfinkel Robin; Tu Yihsuan; Perera Frederica P. (2008-05-01). "Prenatal Exposure to Airborne Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Risk of Intrauterine Growth Restriction". Environmental Health Perspectives. 116 (5): 658–665. doi:10.1289/ehp.10958. PMC 2367680. PMID 18470316.
  26. ^ a b Baer, Rebecca J.; Altman, Molly R.; Oltman, Scott P.; Ryckman, Kelli K.; Chambers, Christina D.; Rand, Larry; Jelliffe-Pawlowski, Laura L. (2019-10-18). "Maternal factors influencing late entry into prenatal care: a stratified analysis by race or ethnicity and insurance status". The Journal of Maternal-Fetal & Neonatal Medicine. 32 (20): 3336–3342. doi:10.1080/14767058.2018.1463366. ISSN 1476-7058. PMID 29631462. S2CID 5045780.
  27. ^ American Society for Reproductive Medicine; American College of Obstetricians Gynecologists' Committee on Gynecologic Practice (2019-01-01). "Prepregnancy counseling: Committee Opinion No. 762". Fertility and Sterility. 111 (1): 32–42. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2018.12.003. ISSN 0015-0282. PMID 30611411.
  28. ^ Atrash, Hani K.; Johnson, Kay; Adams, Myron (Mike); Cordero, José F.; Howse, Jennifer (2006-09-01). "Preconception Care for Improving Perinatal Outcomes: The Time to Act". Maternal and Child Health Journal. 10 (1): 3–11. doi:10.1007/s10995-006-0100-4. ISSN 1573-6628. PMC 1592246. PMID 16773452.
  29. ^ Bureau, US Census. "Poverty Rates for Blacks and Hispanics Reached Historic Lows in 2019". The United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2021-04-15.
  30. ^ a b Ananth Cande V.; Duzyj Christina M.; Yadava Stacy; Schwebel Marlene; Tita Alan T.N.; Joseph K.S. (2019-11-01). "Changes in the Prevalence of Chronic Hypertension in Pregnancy, United States, 1970 to 2010". Hypertension. 74 (5): 1089–1095. doi:10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.119.12968. PMID 31495278.
  31. ^ Premkumar, Ashish; Henry, Dana E.; Moghadassi, Michelle; Nakagawa, Sanae; Norton, Mary E. (2016-12-01). "The interaction between maternal race/ethnicity and chronic hypertension on preterm birth". American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology. 215 (6): 787.e1–787.e8. doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2016.08.019. ISSN 0002-9378. PMID 27555318.
  32. ^ a b Alexopoulos, Anastasia-Stefania; Blair, Rachel; Peters, Anne L. (2019-05-14). "Management of Preexisting Diabetes in Pregnancy: A Review". JAMA. 321 (18): 1811–1819. doi:10.1001/jama.2019.4981. ISSN 0098-7484. PMC 6657017. PMID 31087027.
  33. ^ Lanting, Loes C.; Joung, Inez M. A.; Mackenbach, Johan P.; Lamberts, Steven W. J.; Bootsma, Aart H. (2005-09-01). "Ethnic Differences in Mortality, End-Stage Complications, and Quality of Care Among Diabetic Patients: A review". Diabetes Care. 28 (9): 2280–2288. doi:10.2337/diacare.28.9.2280. hdl:1765/10394. ISSN 0149-5992. PMID 16123507.
  34. ^ a b Cheng, Yiling J.; Kanaya, Alka M.; Araneta, Maria Rosario G.; Saydah, Sharon H.; Kahn, Henry S.; Gregg, Edward W.; Fujimoto, Wilfred Y.; Imperatore, Giuseppina (2019-12-24). "Prevalence of Diabetes by Race and Ethnicity in the United States, 2011-2016". JAMA. 322 (24): 2389–2398. doi:10.1001/jama.2019.19365. ISSN 0098-7484. PMC 6990660. PMID 31860047.
  35. ^ Singh, Gopal K.; DiBari, Jessica N. (2019-02-10). "Marked Disparities in Pre-Pregnancy Obesity and Overweight Prevalence among US Women by Race/Ethnicity, Nativity/Immigrant Status, and Sociodemographic Characteristics, 2012–2014". Journal of Obesity. 2019: 1–13. doi:10.1155/2019/2419263. PMC 6387712. PMID 30881701.
  36. ^ a b c Gadson, Alexis; Akpovi, Eloho; Mehta, Pooja K. (2017-08-01). "Exploring the social determinants of racial/ethnic disparities in prenatal care utilization and maternal outcome". Seminars in Perinatology. 41 (5): 308–317. doi:10.1053/j.semperi.2017.04.008. ISSN 0146-0005. PMID 28625554.
  37. ^ Sidebottom, Abbey C.; Hellerstedt, Wendy L.; Harrison, Patricia A.; Jones-Webb, Rhonda J. (2017-10-01). "Prenatal care: associations with prenatal depressive symptoms and social support in low-income urban women". Archives of Women's Mental Health. 20 (5): 633–644. doi:10.1007/s00737-017-0730-0. ISSN 1435-1102. PMID 28578453. S2CID 4532647.
  38. ^ a b Beckmann, Claudia Anderson; Buford, Terry A.; Witt, Jackie B. (January 2000). "PERCEIVED BARRIERS to Prenatal Care Services". MCN: The American Journal of Maternal/Child Nursing. 25 (1): 43–46. doi:10.1097/00005721-200001000-00009. ISSN 0361-929X. PMID 10676085.
  39. ^ Wilcox, Allen J.; Weinberg, Clarice R.; O'Connor, John F.; Baird, Donna D.; Schlatterer, John P.; Canfield, Robert E.; Armstrong, E. Glenn; Nisula, Bruce C. (1988-07-28). "Incidence of Early Loss of Pregnancy". New England Journal of Medicine. 319 (4): 189–194. doi:10.1056/NEJM198807283190401. ISSN 0028-4793. PMID 3393170.
  40. ^ Mukherjee, Sudeshna; Velez Edwards, Digna R.; Baird, Donna D.; Savitz, David A.; Hartmann, Katherine E. (2013-06-01). "Risk of Miscarriage Among Black Women and White Women in a US Prospective Cohort Study". American Journal of Epidemiology. 177 (11): 1271–1278. doi:10.1093/aje/kws393. ISSN 0002-9262. PMC 3664339. PMID 23558353.
  41. ^ Geronimus, A. T. (1992). "The weathering hypothesis and the health of African-American women and infants: evidence and speculations". Ethnicity & Disease. 2 (3): 207–221. ISSN 1049-510X. PMID 1467758.
  42. ^ Frazier, Tyralynn; Hogue, Carol J. Rowland; Bonney, Elizabeth A.; Yount, Kathryn M.; Pearce, Brad D. (2018-06-01). "Weathering the storm; a review of pre-pregnancy stress and risk of spontaneous abortion". Psychoneuroendocrinology. 92: 142–154. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2018.03.001. ISSN 0306-4530. PMID 29628283. S2CID 4712455.
  43. ^ a b c Rowland Hogue, Carol J.; Silver, Robert M. (2011-08-01). "Racial and Ethnic Disparities in United States: Stillbirth Rates: Trends, Risk Factors, and Research Needs". Seminars in Perinatology. 35 (4): 221–233. doi:10.1053/j.semperi.2011.02.019. ISSN 0146-0005. PMID 21798402.
  44. ^ a b Williams, Andrew D.; Wallace, Maeve; Nobles, Carrie; Mendola, Pauline (2018-05-01). "Racial residential segregation and racial disparities in stillbirth in the United States". Health & Place. 51: 208–216. doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2018.04.005. ISSN 1353-8292. PMC 6287738. PMID 29715639.
  45. ^ a b Mohamed, Mohamed A.; Ahmad, Tahmina; Macri, Charles; Aly, Hany (2012-02-01). "Racial disparities in maternal hemoglobin concentrations and pregnancy outcomes". Journal of Perinatal Medicine. 40 (2): 141–149. doi:10.1515/jpm.2011.137. ISSN 1619-3997. PMID 22718605. S2CID 25639061.
  46. ^ a b Hunsberger, Monica; Rosenberg, Kenneth D.; Donatelle, Rebecca J. (2010-09-01). "Racial/Ethnic Disparities in Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: Findings from a Population-Based Survey". Women's Health Issues. 20 (5): 323–328. doi:10.1016/j.whi.2010.06.003. ISSN 1049-3867. PMID 20800768.
  47. ^ Yuen, Lili; Wong, Vincent W.; Simmons, David (2018-07-23). "Ethnic Disparities in Gestational Diabetes". Current Diabetes Reports. 18 (9): 68. doi:10.1007/s11892-018-1040-2. ISSN 1539-0829. PMID 30039471. S2CID 51711080.
  48. ^ Bryant, Allison S.; Seely, Ellen W.; Cohen, Amy; Lieberman, Ellice (2005-01-01). "Patterns of Pregnancy-Related Hypertension in Black and White Women". Hypertension in Pregnancy. 24 (3): 281–290. doi:10.1080/10641950500281134. ISSN 1064-1955. PMID 16263600. S2CID 23448352.
  49. ^ Gyamfi-Bannerman, Cynthia; Pandita, Ambika; Miller, Eliza C.; Boehme, Amelia K.; Wright, Jason D.; Siddiq, Zainab; D’Alton, Mary E.; Friedman, Alexander M. (2020-11-01). "Preeclampsia outcomes at delivery and race". The Journal of Maternal-Fetal & Neonatal Medicine. 33 (21): 3619–3626. doi:10.1080/14767058.2019.1581522. ISSN 1476-7058. PMC 6790144. PMID 30786794.
  50. ^ a b Boakye Ellen; Sharma Garima; Ogunwole S. Michelle; Zakaria Sammy; Vaught Arthur J.; Kwapong Yaa Adoma; Hong Xiumei; Ji Yuelong; Mehta Laxmi; Creanga Andreea A.; Blaha Michael J. (2021-02-01). "Relationship of Preeclampsia With Maternal Place of Birth and Duration of Residence Among Non-Hispanic Black Women in the United States". Circulation: Cardiovascular Quality and Outcomes. 14 (2): e007546. doi:10.1161/CIRCOUTCOMES.120.007546. PMC 7887058. PMID 33563008.
  51. ^ Shahul, Sajid; Tung, Avery; Minhaj, Mohammed; Nizamuddin, Junaid; Wenger, Julia; Mahmood, Eitezaz; Mueller, Ariel; Shaefi, Shahzad; Scavone, Barbara; Kociol, Robb D.; Talmor, Daniel (2015-10-02). "Racial Disparities in Comorbidities, Complications, and Maternal and Fetal Outcomes in Women With Preeclampsia/eclampsia". Hypertension in Pregnancy. 34 (4): 506–515. doi:10.3109/10641955.2015.1090581. ISSN 1064-1955. PMC 4782921. PMID 26636247.
  52. ^ Johnson, Jasmine D.; Green, Celeste A.; Vladutiu, Catherine J.; Manuck, Tracy A. (2020-08-01). "Racial disparities in prematurity persist among women of high socioeconomic status". American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology MFM. 2 (3): 100104. doi:10.1016/j.ajogmf.2020.100104. ISSN 2589-9333. PMC 7654959. PMID 33179010.
  53. ^ Yang, Nancy; Collins, James W.; Burris, Heather H. (February 2021). "States with more killings of unarmed Black people have larger Black–White preterm birth disparities". Journal of Perinatology. 41 (2): 358–359. doi:10.1038/s41372-020-00914-6. ISSN 1476-5543. PMID 33452418. S2CID 231623705.
  54. ^ a b Dongarwar, Deepa; Tahseen, Danyal; Wang, Liye; Aliyu, Muktar H.; Salihu, Hamisu M. (February 2021). "Temporal trends in preterm birth phenotypes by plurality: Black–White disparity over half a century". Journal of Perinatology. 41 (2): 204–211. doi:10.1038/s41372-020-00912-8. ISSN 1476-5543. PMC 7886650. PMID 33452419.
  55. ^ Waitzman, Norman J.; Jalali, Ali; Grosse, Scott D. (2021-01-24). "Preterm birth lifetime costs in the United States in 2016: An update". Seminars in Perinatology. 45 (3): 151390. doi:10.1016/j.semperi.2021.151390. ISSN 0146-0005. PMC 10549985. PMID 33541716. S2CID 231818594.
  56. ^ Rabin, Roni (May 16, 2023). "Many Women Have an Intense Fear of Childbirth, Survey Suggests". The New York Times. New York Times.
  57. ^ Declercq, Eugene (2013). "Listening to Mothers III" (PDF). Childbirth Connection. Retrieved April 19, 2021.
  58. ^ a b Vedam, Saraswathi; Stoll, Kathrin; Taiwo, Tanya Khemet; Rubashkin, Nicholas; Cheyney, Melissa; Strauss, Nan; McLemore, Monica; Cadena, Micaela; Nethery, Elizabeth; Rushton, Eleanor; Schummers, Laura (2019-06-11). "The Giving Voice to Mothers study: inequity and mistreatment during pregnancy and childbirth in the United States". Reproductive Health. 16 (1): 77. doi:10.1186/s12978-019-0729-2. ISSN 1742-4755. PMC 6558766. PMID 31182118.
  59. ^ Lange, Elizabeth M.S.; Rao, Suman; Toledo, Paloma (2017-08-01). "Racial and ethnic disparities in obstetric anesthesia". Seminars in Perinatology. 41 (5): 293–298. doi:10.1053/j.semperi.2017.04.006. ISSN 0146-0005. PMID 28600029.
  60. ^ Declercq, Eugene R.; Sakala, Carol; Corry, Maureen P.; Applebaum, Sandra (2007-01-23). "Listening to Mothers II: Report of the Second National U.S. Survey of Women's Childbearing Experiences". Journal of Perinatal Education. 16 (4): 9–14. doi:10.1624/105812407X244769. PMC 2174380. PMID 18769512.
  61. ^ Braveman, P; Egerter, S; Edmonston, F; Verdon, M (1995-05-01). "Racial/ethnic differences in the likelihood of cesarean delivery, California". American Journal of Public Health. 85 (5): 625–630. doi:10.2105/AJPH.85.5.625. ISSN 0090-0036. PMC 1615415. PMID 7733420.
  62. ^ a b Valdes, Elise G. (2020-08-17). "Examining Cesarean Delivery Rates by Race: a Population-Based Analysis Using the Robson Ten-Group Classification System". Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities. 8 (4): 844–851. doi:10.1007/s40615-020-00842-3. ISSN 2196-8837. PMC 8285304. PMID 32808193. S2CID 221146840.
  63. ^ Delafield, Rebecca; Elia, Jennifer; Chang, Ann; Kaneshiro, Bliss; Sentell, Tetine; Pirkle, Catherine M. (February 2021). "A Cross-Sectional Study Examining Differences in Indication for Cesarean Delivery by Race/Ethnicity". Healthcare. 9 (2): 159. doi:10.3390/healthcare9020159. PMC 7913232. PMID 33546153.
  64. ^ Getahun, Darios; Strickland, Daniel; Lawrence, Jean M.; Fassett, Michael J.; Koebnick, Corinna; Jacobsen, Steven J. (2009-10-01). "Racial and ethnic disparities in the trends in primary cesarean delivery based on indications". American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology. 201 (4): 422.e1–422.e7. doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2009.07.062. ISSN 0002-9378. PMID 19788975.
  65. ^ Mirabal-Beltran, Roxanne; Strobino, Donna M. (2020-01-01). "Birth Mode after Primary Cesarean among Hispanic and non-Hispanic Women at One U.S. Institution". Women's Health Issues. 30 (1): 7–15. doi:10.1016/j.whi.2019.09.001. ISSN 1049-3867. PMID 31623931.
  66. ^ "ACOG Practice Bulletin No. 205: Vaginal Birth After Cesarean Delivery". Obstetrics & Gynecology. 133 (2): e110–e127. February 2019. doi:10.1097/AOG.0000000000003078. ISSN 0029-7844. PMID 30681543. S2CID 59252276.
  67. ^ Vyas, Darshali A.; Jones, David S.; Meadows, Audra R.; Diouf, Khady; Nour, Nawal M.; Schantz-Dunn, Julianna (May 2019). "Challenging the Use of Race in the Vaginal Birth after Cesarean Section Calculator". Women's Health Issues. 29 (3): 201–204. doi:10.1016/j.whi.2019.04.007. PMID 31072754.
  68. ^ Quist-Nelson, Johanna; Parker, Meiling Hua; Berghella, Vincenzo; Nijjar, J. Biba (2017-03-04). "Are Asian American women at higher risk of severe perineal lacerations?". The Journal of Maternal-Fetal & Neonatal Medicine. 30 (5): 525–528. doi:10.1080/14767058.2016.1177719. ISSN 1476-7058. PMID 27071715. S2CID 43641676.
  69. ^ Landy, Helain J.; Laughon, S. Katherine; Bailit, Jennifer L.; Kominiarek, Michelle A.; Gonzalez-Quintero, Victor Hugo; Ramirez, Mildred; Haberman, Shoshana; Hibbard, Judith; Wilkins, Isabelle; Branch, D. Ware; Burkman, Ronald T. (March 2011). "Characteristics Associated With Severe Perineal and Cervical Lacerations During Vaginal Delivery". Obstetrics & Gynecology. 117 (3): 627–635. doi:10.1097/AOG.0b013e31820afaf2. ISSN 0029-7844. PMC 3132187. PMID 21343766.
  70. ^ Howard, D.; Davies, P. S.; Delancey, J. O.; Small, Y. (2000-10-01). "Differences in perineal lacerations in black and white primiparas". Obstetrics & Gynecology. 96 (4): 622–624. doi:10.1016/S0029-7844(00)00956-X. ISSN 0029-7844. PMC 1226415. PMID 11004370.
  71. ^ Ende, Holly B.; Lozada, M. James; Chestnut, David H.; Osmundson, Sarah S.; Walden, Rachel L.; Shotwell, Matthew S.; Bauchat, Jeanette R. (February 2021). "Risk Factors for Atonic Postpartum Hemorrhage: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis". Obstetrics & Gynecology. 137 (2): 305–323. doi:10.1097/AOG.0000000000004228. ISSN 0029-7844. PMC 8336570. PMID 33417319.
  72. ^ a b c Gyamfi-Bannerman, Cynthia; Srinivas, Sindhu K.; Wright, Jason D.; Goffman, Dena; Siddiq, Zainab; D’Alton, Mary E.; Friedman, Alexander M. (2018-08-01). "Postpartum hemorrhage outcomes and race". American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology. 219 (2): 185.e1–185.e10. doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2018.04.052. ISSN 0002-9378. PMID 29752934. S2CID 21672873.
  73. ^ a b Malhamé, I.; Danilack, V. A.; Raker, C. A.; Hardy, E. J.; Spalding, H.; Bouvier, B. A.; Hurlburt, H.; Vrees, R.; Savitz, D. A.; Mehta, N. (2021). "Cardiovascular severe maternal morbidity in pregnant and postpartum women: development and internal validation of risk prediction models". BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology. 128 (5): 922–932. doi:10.1111/1471-0528.16512. ISSN 1471-0528. PMID 32946639. S2CID 221798951.
  74. ^ a b Creanga, Andreea A.; Syverson, Carla; Seed, Kristi; Callaghan, William M. (2017). "Pregnancy-Related Mortality in the United States, 2011–2013". Obstetrics and Gynecology. 130 (2): 366–373. doi:10.1097/AOG.0000000000002114. ISSN 0029-7844. PMC 5744583. PMID 28697109.
  75. ^ a b c d Petersen, Emily E.; Davis, Nicole L.; Goodman, David; Cox, Shanna; Syverson, Carla; Seed, Kristi; Shapiro-Mendoza, Carrie; Callaghan, William M.; Barfield, Wanda (2019-09-06). "Racial/Ethnic Disparities in Pregnancy-Related Deaths — United States, 2007–2016". Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 68 (35): 762–765. doi:10.15585/mmwr.mm6835a3. ISSN 0149-2195. PMC 6730892. PMID 31487273.
  76. ^ Badreldin, Nevert; Grobman, William A.; Yee, Lynn M. (December 2019). "Racial Disparities in Postpartum Pain Management". Obstetrics & Gynecology. 134 (6): 1147–1153. doi:10.1097/AOG.0000000000003561. ISSN 0029-7844. PMC 6905121. PMID 31764723.
  77. ^ Mi, Tianyue; Hung, Peiyin; Li, Xiaoming; McGregor, Alecia; He, Jingui; Zhou, Jie (2022-06-23). "Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Postpartum Care in the Greater Boston Area During the COVID-19 Pandemic". JAMA Network Open. 5 (6): e2216355. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.16355. ISSN 2574-3805. PMC 9226999. PMID 35737390.
  78. ^ a b Wagner, Jennifer L.; White, Robert S.; Tangel, Virginia; Gupta, Soham; Pick, Jeremy S. (2019-08-01). "Socioeconomic, Racial, and Ethnic Disparities in Postpartum Readmissions in Patients with Preeclampsia: a Multi-state Analysis, 2007–2014". Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities. 6 (4): 806–820. doi:10.1007/s40615-019-00580-1. ISSN 2196-8837. PMID 30887426. S2CID 83463086.
  79. ^ a b Guintivano, Jerry; Manuck, Tracy; Meltzer-Brody, Samantha (September 2018). "Predictors of Postpartum Depression: A Comprehensive Review of the Last Decade of Evidence". Clinical Obstetrics & Gynecology. 61 (3): 591–603. doi:10.1097/GRF.0000000000000368. ISSN 0009-9201. PMC 6059965. PMID 29596076.
  80. ^ a b Ertel, Karen A.; Rich-Edwards, Janet W.; Koenen, Karestan C. (November 2011). "Maternal Depression in the United States: Nationally Representative Rates and Risks". Journal of Women's Health. 20 (11): 1609–1617. doi:10.1089/jwh.2010.2657. ISSN 1540-9996. PMC 3253390. PMID 21877915.
  81. ^ Steele, Dale W.; Adam, Gaelen P.; Saldanha, Ian J.; Kanaan, Ghid; Zahradnik, Michael L.; Danilack-Fekete, Valery A.; Stuebe, Alison M.; Peahl, Alex F.; Chen, Kenneth K.; Balk, Ethan M. (August 2023). "Postpartum Home Blood Pressure Monitoring: A Systematic Review". Obstetrics & Gynecology. 142 (2): 285–295. doi:10.1097/AOG.0000000000005270. ISSN 0029-7844. PMID 37311173.
  82. ^ a b Monet, Jenni (2021-03-08). "Could Indigenous Midwifery Improve Maternal Health for Native Women?". The Nation. ISSN 0027-8378. Retrieved 2021-04-26.
  83. ^ Ngendahimana, David; Amalraj, Jessica; Wilkinson, Barbara; Verbus, Emily; Montague, Mary; Morris, Jane; Arora, Kavita Shah (2021-01-07). "Association of race and ethnicity with postpartum contraceptive method choice, receipt, and subsequent pregnancy". BMC Women's Health. 21 (1): 17. doi:10.1186/s12905-020-01162-8. ISSN 1472-6874. PMC 7789754. PMID 33413298.
  84. ^ Thiel De Bocanegra, Heike; Braughton, Monica; Bradsberry, Mary; Howell, Mike; Logan, Julia; Schwarz, Eleanor Bimla (2017-07-01). "Racial and ethnic disparities in postpartum care and contraception in California's Medicaid program". American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology. 217 (1): 47.e1–47.e7. doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2017.02.040. ISSN 0002-9378. PMID 28263752. S2CID 26890062.
  85. ^ Saldanha, Ian J.; Adam, Gaelen P.; Kanaan, Ghid; Zahradnik, Michael L.; Steele, Dale W.; Chen, Kenneth K.; Peahl, Alex F.; Danilack-Fekete, Valery A.; Stuebe, Alison M.; Balk, Ethan M. (2023-06-02). "Health Insurance Coverage and Postpartum Outcomes in the US: A Systematic Review". JAMA Network Open. 6 (6): e2316536. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.16536. ISSN 2574-3805. PMC 10238947. PMID 37266938.
  86. ^ Garcia, Ginny; Richardson, Dawn M.; Gonzales, Kelly L.; Cuevas, Adolfo G. (2015-11-01). "Trends and Disparities in Postpartum Sterilization after Cesarean Section, 2000 through 2008". Women's Health Issues. 25 (6): 634–640. doi:10.1016/j.whi.2015.07.006. ISSN 1049-3867. PMID 26329256.
  87. ^ Yee, Lynn M.; Simon, Melissa A. (2011). "Perceptions of Coercion, Discrimination and Other Negative Experiences in Postpartum Contraceptive Counseling for Low-income Minority Women". Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved. 22 (4): 1387–1400. doi:10.1353/hpu.2011.0144. ISSN 1548-6869. PMID 22080717. S2CID 10820713.
  88. ^ Stern, Alexandra Minna (2005-07-01). "STERILIZED in the Name of Public Health". American Journal of Public Health. 95 (7): 1128–1138. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2004.041608. ISSN 0090-0036. PMC 1449330. PMID 15983269.
  89. ^ Chappell, Bill (9 July 2013). "California's Prison Sterilizations Reportedly Echo Eugenics Era". NPR. Retrieved 2021-05-07.
  90. ^ "Analysis | ICE is accused of sterilizing detainees. That echoes the U.S.'s long history of forced sterilization". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 2021-05-07.
  91. ^ Beauregard, Jennifer L.; Hamner, Heather C.; Chen, Jian; Avila-Rodriguez, Wendy; Elam-Evans, Laurie D.; Perrine, Cria G. (2019-08-30). "Racial Disparities in Breastfeeding Initiation and Duration Among U.S. Infants Born in 2015". MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 68 (34): 745–748. doi:10.15585/mmwr.mm6834a3. ISSN 0149-2195. PMC 6715261. PMID 31465319.
  92. ^ McKinney, Chelsea O.; Hahn-Holbrook, Jennifer; Chase-Lansdale, P. Lindsay; Ramey, Sharon L.; Krohn, Julie; Reed-Vance, Maxine; Raju, Tonse N.K.; Shalowitz, Madeleine U.; on behalf of the Community Child Health Research Network (August 2016). "Racial and Ethnic Differences in Breastfeeding". Pediatrics. 138 (2): e20152388. doi:10.1542/peds.2015-2388. ISSN 0031-4005. PMC 4960721. PMID 27405771.
  93. ^ a b Mieso, Bethel R.; Burrow, Hunter; Lam, Suet Kam (2021-04-08). "Beyond Statistics: Uncovering the Roots of Racial Disparities in Breastfeeding". Pediatrics. 147 (5): e2020037887. doi:10.1542/peds.2020-037887. ISSN 0031-4005. PMID 33833073. S2CID 233192435.
  94. ^ "All 13 IHS obstetric facilities designated Baby-Friendly". Indian Health Service. December 8, 2014. Retrieved April 21, 2021.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Race_and_maternal_health_in_the_United_States&oldid=1215788860"