Computer-supported cooperative work

Template:WAP assignment The term computer-supported cooperative work (CSCW) was first coined by Irene Greif and Paul M. Cashman in 1984, at a workshop attended by individuals interested in using technology to support people in their work. At about this same time, in 1987, Dr. Charles Findley presented the concept of Collaborative Learning-Work. According to Carstensen and Schmidt, CSCW addresses "how collaborative activities and their coordination can be supported by means of computer systems". On the one hand, many authors consider that CSCW and groupware are synonyms. On the other hand, different authors claim that while groupware refers to real computer-based systems, CSCW focuses on the study of tools and techniques of groupware as well as their psychological, social, and organizational effects. The definition of Wilson (1991) expresses the difference between these two concepts:

CSCW [is] a generic term, which combines the understanding of the way people work in groups with the enabling technologies of computer networking, and associated hardware, software, services and techniques.

Central concerns and concepts

CSCW is a design-oriented academic field that is interdisciplinary in nature and brings together librarians, economists, organizational theorists, educators, social psychologists, sociologists, anthropologists and computer scientists, among others. The expertise of researchers in various and combined disciplines help researchers identify venues for possible development. Despite the variety of disciplines, CSCW is an identifiable research field focused on understanding characteristics of interdependent group work with the objective of designing adequate computer-based technology to support such cooperative work.

Essentially, CSCW goes beyond building technology itself and looks at how people work within groups and organizations and the impacts of technology on those processes. CSCW has ushered in a great extent of melding between social scientists and technologists as developers work together to overcome both technical and non-technical problems within the same user spaces. For example, many R&D professionals working with CSCW are computer scientists who have realized that social factors play an important role in the development of collaborative systems. On the flip side, many social scientists who understand the increasing role of technology in our social world become "technologists" who work in R&D labs to develop cooperative systems.

Over the years, CSCW researchers have identified a number of core dimensions of cooperative work. A non-exhaustive list includes:

• Awareness: individuals working together need to be able to gain some level of shared knowledge about each other's activities.
• Articulation work: cooperating individuals must somehow be able to partition work into units, divide it amongst themselves and, after the work is performed, reintegrate it.
• Appropriation (or tailorability): how an individual or group adapts a technology to their own particular situation; the technology may be appropriated in a manner completely unintended by the designers.

These concepts have largely been derived through the analysis of systems designed by researchers in the CSCW community, or through studies of existing systems (for example, Wikipedia). CSCW researchers that design and build systems try to address core concepts in novel ways. However, the complexity of the domain makes it difficult to produce conclusive results; the success of CSCW systems is often so contingent on the peculiarities of the social context that it is hard to generalize. Consequently, CSCW systems that are based on the design of successful ones may fail to be appropriated in other seemingly similar contexts for a variety of reasons that are nearly impossible to identify a priori. CSCW researcher Mark Ackerman calls this "divide between what we know we must support socially and what we can support technically" the socio-technical gap and describes CSCW's main research agenda to be "exploring, understanding, and hopefully ameliorating" this gap.

Matrix

the CSCW Matrix

One of the most common ways of conceptualizing CSCW systems is to consider the context of a system's use. One such conceptualization is the CSCW Matrix, first introduced in 1988 by Johansen; it also appears in Baecker (1995). The matrix considers work contexts along two dimensions: first, whether collaboration is co-located or geographically distributed, and second, whether individuals collaborate synchronously (same time) or asynchronously (not depending on others to be around at the same time).

Same time/same place

Face to face interaction

• Roomware
• Shared tables, wall displays
• Digital whiteboards
• Electronic meeting systems
• Single display groupware
• Group Decision Support System

Same time/different place

Remote interaction

• Electronic meeting systems
• Videoconferencing
• Real-time groupware
• Messaging (instant messaging, email, chat)
• Telephoning

Different time/same place

Continuous task (Ongoing task )

• Team rooms,
• Large displays
• Post-it
• Warrooms

Different time/different place

Communication + Coordination

• Electronic meeting systems
• Blogs
• Workflow
• Version control

There is a collaborative mode called multi-synchronous that can not fit the matrix.

Ubiquitous Computing

Along the lines of a more collaborative modality is something called ubiquitous computing. Ubiquitous computing was first coined by Mark Weiser of Xerox PARC. This was to describe the phenomenon of computing technologies becoming prevalent everywhere. It was key to create a new language for this to observe the dynamics of computers becoming available at mass scale and its effects on us as users in collaborative systems. Between the use of social commerce apps, the rise of social media, and the widespread availability of smart devices and the Internet, there is a growing area of research within CSCW that how come out of these three trends. These topics include ethnomethodology and conversation analysis (EMCA) within social media, ubiquitous computing, and instant message based social commerce.

Ethnomethodology & Synchronicity

In You Recommend I Buy: How and Why People Engage in Instant Messaging Based Social Commerce, researchers on this project analyzed twelve users of Chinese Instant Messenger (IM) social commerce platforms to study how social recommendation engines on IM commerce platforms result in a different user experience. The study was entirely on Chinese platforms, mainly WeChat. The research was conducted by a team composed of members from Stanford, Beijing, Boston, and Kyoto. The interviewing process took place in the winter of 2020 and was an entirely qualitative analysis, using just interviews. The goal of the interviews were to probe about how participants got involved in IM based social commerce, their experience on IM based social commerce, the reasons for and against IM based social commerce, and changes introduced by IM based social commerce to their lives. There were three main questions posed by the study: “[how] and why do users engage in IM based social commerce? Do such platforms create novel experiences that are distinct from prior commerce? And do these platforms bring changes to user social lives and relationships?” These questions introduced a couple of paradigm shifts: the IM technology for commercial activities makes shopping a more distributed business process. The second shift is that an IM based service integrates directly with our more intimate social experiences. If we think about what IM means, it is essentially texting in real-time over a network. This can be both a synchronous or asynchronous activity. This is important because it is highly beneficial in terms of the effectiveness of commerce. IM based social commerce makes the user shopping experience more accessible. In terms of CSCW, this is an example of ubiquitous computing. This creates a “jump out of the box” experience as described in the research because the IM based platform facilitates a change in user behavior and the overall experience on social commerce. The benefit of this concept is that the app is leveraging personal relationships and real-life networks that can actually lead to a more meaningful customer experience, which is founded upon trust. This paper on IM based social commerce platforms reveals the complete shift in our notion of collaborative systems due to the nature of social media and its effects on our behaviors. That is, instead of knowing we want to buy and then searching for what we want, apps like WeChat influences us to now have our search done first for us by the recommendation engine, and then we decide if we are going to buy.

Embeddedness

A second CSCW paper, Embeddedness and Sequentiality in Social Media, explores a new methodology for analyzing social media—another expression of ubiquitous computing in CSCW. This paper used ethnomethodology and conversation analysis (EMCA) as a framework to research Facebook users. The team behind all this, hailing from University of Nottingham and Stockholm University, recognized that “moment-by-moment, unfolding, real-time human action” had really not been delved into too much within CSCW research on social media. The significance of this is they felt that by exploring EMCA, it could point the way forward in terms of coming up with new solutions in collaborative social network systems. First, let us take a step back to define what EMCA is:

For EMCA, the activities of everyday life are structured in time—some things routinely happen before others. Fundamentally there is a ‘sequentiality’ to activity, something that has been vital for developing understanding of the orderly nature of talk [45] and bodily interaction [16].

In other words, EMCA pays attention to the sequence of events, so as to reveal some sort of underlying order about our behavior in our day-to-day interactions.

Co-located, Parallel & Sequential activities

Instead of relying on accounts of user experiences about social media, which are all based on recollection, we can now ask different questions and get a whole new set of answers to unresolved issues in the ubiquitous computing systems. These include: “How does social media start being used, stop being used? When is it being used, and how is that usage ordered and integrated into other, parallel activities at the time?” Parallel activities refer to occurrences in co-located groupware and ubiquitous computing technologies like social media.   By examining these sequential and parallel activities in user groups on social media networks, we then have the ability to “[manage] the experience of that everyday life.” An important takeaway from this paper on EMCA and sequentiality is that it reveals how the choices made by designers of social media apps ultimately mediates our end-user experience, for better or for worse. More to the point, it reveals: “when content is posted and sequentially what is associated with it.”

Ubiquitous Computing Infrastructures

On the topic of computing infrastructures, Democratizing Ubiquitous Computing - a Right for Locality presents a study from researchers at Lancaster University on ubiquitous computing ("ubicomp") to identify where there exists positive or negative effects on users and society at large. The research specifically focuses on cities or urban areas as they are places where one can expect a lot of technological and social activities to take place. An apparent guiding principle to the research is that the goal of advancing any ubicomp technologies should be to maximize the amount of good to as many people in a society as possible. A key observation is made about the way in which these infrastructures come into being:

A ubiquitous computing infrastructure can play an important role in enabling and enhancing beneficial social processes as, unlike electricity, digital infrastructure enhances a society’s cognitive power by its ability to connect people and information [39]. While infrastructure projects in the past had the idealistic notion to connect the urban realm and its communities of different ethnicity, wealth, and beliefs, Graham et al. [28] note the increasing fragmentation of the management and ownership of infrastructures.

This is because ubicomp has the potential to further disadvantage marginalized communities online. The current disadvantage of ubicomp infrastructures is that they do not best support urban development. Proposals to resolve these social issues include increased transparency about personal data collection as well as individual and community accountability about the data collection process in ubicomp infrastructure. Essentially, ubiquitous computing will reflect society and the choices it makes will influence those computing systems that are put in place. Ubiquitous computing is huge to the field of CSCW because as the barriers between physical boundaries that separate us break down with the adoption of technology, our relationships to those locations is actually strengthened. This research shows how the wider availability of ubicomp has left some unintended negative consequences that need to be sorted out at both the individual user level as well as the societal level.

Social - Technical Gap

Mark Ackerman defines the term social-technical gap as “the divide between what we know we must support socially and what we can support technically”. It is important to analyze ‘what we know we must support socially’ for a few reasons. The way interaction takes place within an in-person setting is something that cannot be easily changed unlike the way technology is able to be manipulated to fit specific needs today. There are certain norms and standards lived up to within peoples’ day to day lives, a certain part of those norms and attitudes carry over into the online world. The problem is mimicking daily communication styles and behavior into an online setting. Schmidt examines this concept within “Mind the Gap”, he states “Cooperative work is a tricky phenomenon. We are all engaged in cooperative activities of various sorts in our everyday lives and routinely observe others working together around us. We are all experts from our everyday experience. And yet this quotidian insight can be utterly misleading when applied to the design of systems to support cooperative work”. Even though everyone knows how to go about communicating in person on a day-to-day basis, it doesn’t easily translate over into cooperative work. This highlights the need for adaptability within CSCW systems, Schmidt expands on the “crucial requirement of flexibility that arises from the changing needs of the cooperative work setting”. These all tie together to highlight the gaps within CSCW.

Challenges

Leadership

Generally, teams working in a CSCW environment need the same types of leadership as other teams. However, research has shown that distributed CSCW teams may need more direction at the time the group is formed than traditional working groups, largely to promote cohesion and liking among people who may not have as many opportunities to interact in person, both before and after the formation of the working group.

Adoption of groupware

Groupware goes hand in hand with CSCW. The term refers to software that is designed to support activities of a group or organization over a network and includes email, conferencing tools, group calendars, workflow management tools, etc.

While groupware enables geographically dispersed teams to achieve organizational goals and engage in cooperative work, there are also many challenges that accompany use of such systems. For instance, groupware often requires users to learn a new system, which users may perceive as creating more work for them without much benefit. If team members are not willing to learn and adopt groupware, it is difficult (if not impossible) for the organization to develop the requisite critical mass for the groupware to be useful. Further, research has found that groupware requires careful implementation into a group setting, and product developers have not as yet been able to find the most optimal way to introduce such systems into organizational environments.

On the technical side, networking issues with groupware often create challenges in using groupware for CSCW. While access to the Internet is becoming increasingly ubiquitous, geographically dispersed users still face challenges of differing network conditions. For instance, web conferencing can be quite challenging if some members have a very slow connection and others are able to utilize high speed connections.

Intergenerational groups

Adapting CSCW tools for intergenerational groups is a prevalent issue within all forms of CSCW. Different generations have different feelings towards technology as well as different ways to utilize technology. However,as technology has become integral to everyday tasks, it must be accessible to all generations of people. With cooperative work becoming increasingly important and diversified, virtual interaction between different generations is also expanding. Given this, many fields that utilize CSCW tools require carefully designed frameworks to account for different generations.

Workplace Teams

One of the recurring challenges in CSCW environments is development of an infrastructure that can bridge cross-generational gaps in virtual teams.

Many companies rely on communication and collaboration between intergenerational employees to be successful, and often this collaboration is performed using various softwares and technologies. These team-driven groupware platforms range from email and daily calendars to version control platforms, task management softwares, and more. These tools must be accessible to workplace teams virtually, with remote work becoming more commonplace.

Ideally, system designs will accommodate all team members, but orienting older workers to new CSCW tools can often be difficult. This can cause problems in virtual teams due to the necessity of incorporating the wealth of knowledge and expertise that older workers bring to the table with the technological challenges of new virtual environments. Orienting and retraining older workers to effectively utilize new technology can often be difficult, as they generally have less experience than younger workers with learning such new technologies.

As older workers are delaying their retirement and re-entering the workforce, teams are becoming increasingly intergenerational, meaning that the creation of effective intergenerational CSCW frameworks for virtual environments is essential.

Social Platforms

Social media tools and platforms have expanded virtual communication amongst various generations. However, with older individuals being less comfortable with CSCW tools, it is difficult to design social platforms that account for both older and younger generational social needs.

Often, these social systems focus key functionality and feature creation for younger demographics, causing issues in adaptability for older generations. In addition, with the lack of scalability for these features, the tools are not able to adapt to fit evolutional needs of generations as they age. With the difficulty for older demographics to adopt these intergenerational virtual platforms, the risk of social isolation is increased in older adults.

While systems have been created specifically for older generations to communicate amongst one another, system design frameworks are not complex enough to lend to intergenerational communication.

E-Learning

Virtual educational softwares and tools are becoming more readily used globally. Remote educational platforms and tools must be accessible for various generations, including children as well as guardians or teachers, yet these frameworks are not adapted to be child-friendly.

The lack of interface and design consideration for younger users causes difficulty in potential communication between children and older generations utilizing the software. This in turn leads to a decrease in virtual learning participation as well as potential diminished collaboration with peers. In addition, it may be difficult for older teachers to utilize such technology, and communicate with their students. Similar to orienting older workers with CSCW tools, it is difficult to train younger students or older teachers in utilizing virtual technology, and may not be possible for widely spread virtual classrooms and learning environments.

CSCW in Gaming

Collaborative mixed reality games modify the shared social experience, during which players can interact in real time with physical and virtual gaming environments and with other multiplayer video gamers.

The group members experience effective communication practices following the availability of a common platform for expressing opinions and coordinating tasks. The technology is applicable not only in professional contexts but also in the gaming world. CSCW usually offers synchronous and asynchronous games to allow multiple individuals to compete in a certain activity across social networks. Thus, the tool has made gaming more interesting by facilitating group activities in real-time and widespread social interactions beyond geographical boundaries.

Computer-mediated communication in gaming settings takes place across different channels. They include structured message systems, bulletin boards, meeting rooms, and shared diaries.  As such, the players can hold conversations while proceeding with the game to create a lively experience.

Guidelines for Creating Multi-User Video Games

Designing a multi-user collaborative game requires following some suggestions. Three key suggestions include Positive Interdependence, Personal Accountability, and Social Skills . Positive Interdependence is the idea of video game players on a team or in a group understanding that working together is beneficial, and that the success and failure of the group is shared equally if all members participate . An example of including a positive interdependence aspect to a video game includes, creating a common shared goal for the team to increase collaboration. The next guideline is Personal Accountability, which is the idea that each individual in a group must put forth their best effort for the team’s overall success . Some examples of incorporating Personal Accountability in a video game are including an incentive system where individual players are rewarded with additional points for completing an objective or an action that improves the team’s chances of success .The final guideline, Social Skills is the most important to consider when designing a collaborative game. An example of developing player social skills through a video game can be creating in-game situations where players have to assign roles, plan, and execute to solve the problem . By following these three guidelines (Positive Interdependence, Personal Accountability, and Social Skills) game makers can create gaming-environments which encourage collaboration and social interaction between players.

Gaming Collaborative Interactions

Game development is a collaborative and socially interactive process. In the OAM (Orange Adventure Game Maker, popular social space for Chinese game makers) community, game makers are inclined to collaborate with one another because they are interested in create games with shared common values . Furthermore, within the OAM community there is a “Blurred Boundary” between a user being a player or a game developer .  The term “Blurred Boundary” has been coined by Guo Freeman from University of Cincinnati, and is used to describe the large number of game makers in the OAM community who are also players. These individuals not only provide feedback to their peers, but also play the game to understand it from a player’s perspective . Other than the game makers in the OAM community, the players are very involved with the creation of a game. Guo Freeman describes the social interactions between a game maker and player during the development stage of the game as, Interactive Crafting. This is a process in which the game maker and player actively work together to develop the storyline of a video game . The collaboration and social interactions between the game maker and player during the creation of the game allow for active feedback, and the ability for the game maker to fulfill the player's requirements.

The most collaborative and socially interactive aspect of a video game is the online communities. Popular video games often have various social groups for their diverse community of players. For example, in World of Warcraft (WOW) (a quest-based multiplayer game) the most collaborative and socially interactive aspect of the game are the “Guilds”. A “Guild” in WOW in simple terms is like an alliance or group of individuals that you are on a “team” with . By incorporating Guilds, WOW is creating opportunities for players to collaborate and interact with their team members who can be from anywhere around the world. WOW players who are associated with a Guild are more likely to play and do quests with the same Guild mates each time which creates a strong bond between players and a sense of community . These bonds and friendships formed from playing with Guild mates, not only improves collaboration within the game, it also creates a sense of belonging and community and that is the most important attribute of online gaming communities.

Advantages

While CSCW working environments certainly face challenges, they also provide many advantages as well. For instance, teams that work together asynchronously provide members with the luxury to contribute when they want, from the location of their choosing, thus eliminating the need for members to "synchronize schedules". CSCW also allows employees with specific expertise to be a part of teams without the concern of geographic restraints."

CSCW can also result in major cost savings to companies who implement virtual teams and allow employees to work at home by eliminating the need for travel, rented office space, parking, electricity, office equipment, etc. Conversely, from the employee’s perspective, commuting costs and time associated with communing are also eliminated.

Further, research has shown that the use of multiple communication threads can increase group participation and contribution from more team members and foster a more egalitarian communication structure. Along the same lines, text-based CSCW communication, such as email, allows users to keep a record of communication and can promote long-term collaboration and learning through observing others.

Challenges in research

Differing meanings

Even within the CSCW field, researchers often rely on different journals, research, contextual factors and schools of thought, which can result in disagreement and confusion especially when common terms in the field are used in subtly different ways ("user", "implementation", etc.) Also, user requirements change over time and are often not clear to participants due to their evolving nature and the fact that requirements are always in flux.

Identifying user needs

Because organizations are so nuanced, CSCW researchers often have difficulty deciding which set(s) of tools will benefit a particular group. This is exacerbated by the fact that it is almost impossible to accurately identify user/group/organization needs and requirements because such needs and requirements inevitably change through the introduction of the system itself. Even when researchers study requirements through several iterations, such requirements often change and evolve yet again by the time that researchers have completed a particular iteration of inquiry.

Evaluation and measurement

The range of disciplinary approaches leveraged in implementing CSCW systems makes CSCW difficult to evaluate, measure, and generalize to multiple populations. Because researchers evaluating CSCW systems often bypass quantitative data in favor of naturalistic inquiry, results can be largely subjective due to the complexity and nuances of organizations themselves. Possibly as a result of the debate between qualitative and quantitative researchers, three evaluation approaches have emerged in the literature examining CSCW systems. However, each approach faces its own unique challenges and weaknesses:

Methodology-oriented frameworks explain the methods of inquiry available to CSCW researchers without providing guidance for selecting the best method for a particular research question or population.

Conceptual frameworks provide guidelines for determining factors that a researcher should consider and evaluate through CSCW research but fail to link conceptual constructs with methodological approaches. Thus, while researchers may know what factors are important to their inquiry, they may have difficulty understanding which methodologies will result in the most informative findings.

Concept-oriented frameworks provide specific advice for studying isolated aspects of CSCW but lack guidance as to how specific areas of study can be combined to form more comprehensive insight.

Considerations for Interaction Design

Self-presentation has been studied in traditional face-to-face environments, but as society has embraced content culture, social platforms have generated new affordances for presenting oneself online. Due to technological growth, social platforms, and their increased affordances have reconfigured the way users self-present online due to audience input, context collapse, and anonymity.

Online, audiences are physically invisible which complicates the users ability to distinguish their intended audience. Audience input, on social platforms, can range from comments, sharing, liking, tagging, etc.. LinkedIn is a platform who encourages commentary where positive feedback outweighs negative feedback on topics including career announcements. Conversely, audience input can be unwarranted which can lead to real life implications, especially for marginalized groups who are prone to both warranted and unwarranted commentary on public posts.

Context collapse occurs when previously separate audiences are united as a singular audience, making curated content with intents for one audience visible to unintended audiences. The likelihood of context collapse is especially challenging with the surge of proprietary software which introduces a conflict of interest for the users who have an ideal audience, but the platforms algorithm has a differing one. Context collapse reinforces the previous notion of user input due to the overlap of unintended user interaction. Moreover, collapsed context influences self-presentation when previously separate audiences are merged into one.

As media platforms proliferate, so do the affordances offered that directly influence how users manage their self-presentation. According to researchers, the three most influential affordances on how users present themselves in an online domain include anonymity, persistence, and visibility.

Anonymity, in terms of self-presentation and affordances, is something that “separates a person’s online identity from their offline one”. Platforms that support anonymity have users that are more likely to depict their offline self accurately online (i.e Reddit). Comparatively, platforms with less constraints on anonymity are subject to users that portray their online and offline selves differently, thus creating a “persona”. Facebook, for example, requires its users to abide by its “real-name” policy, further connecting their offline and online identities. Furthermore, being able to unequivocally associate an online persona to a real-life human contributes to how users present themselves online.

“Content persistence is the extent to which a platform affords the continued availability of content over time.”. Platforms including Instagram and Facebook are highly persistent because its users share content that remains available until they delete their post. Whereas, Snapchat is a lower persistence platform because content is ephemeral causing users to post content that represents their offline self more accurately. This affordance strongly affects users' self-presentation management because they recognize content can be openly accessed on platforms that are highly persistent.

On social platforms, visibility is created when information is acquired with little effort, an example being a hashtag. When content is visible, users become aware of their self-presentation and will adjust their content accordingly. However, some platforms give their users leverage in specifying how visible their content is, thus affording for visibility control. For example Snapchat and Instagram both allow users to build a “close friends list” and block specific people from viewing content. Nonetheless, intended audiences are never guaranteed. Facebook is an example of a platform that shares content to both primary (e.g. direct friends) and secondary viewers (e.g. friends of friends). The concern of visibility with Facebook's algorithm is notably challenging for marginalized groups because of such blurred visibility mechanisms. In addition, users face privacy concerns relative to visibility given the current era of screenshotting.

Conferences

Since 2010, the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) has hosted a yearly conference on CSCW. From 1986-2010, it was held biannually. The conference is currently held in October or November and features research in the design and use of technologies that affect organizational and group work. With the rapidly increasing development of new devices that allow collaboration from different locations and contexts, CSCW seeks to bring together researchers from across academia and industry to discuss the many facets of virtual collaboration from both social and technical perspectives.

Internationally, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) sponsors the International Conference on Computer Supported Work in Design, which takes place yearly. In addition, the European Society for Socially Embedded Technologies sponsors the European Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work, which has been held every two years since 1989. CSCW panels are a regular component of conferences of the adjacent field of Science and Technology Studies.

See also

• Collaborative working environment
• Collaborative working system
• Collaborative software
• Collaborative innovation network
• Collaborative information seeking
• Computer-supported collaboration
• Commons-based peer production
• Electronic meeting system
• E-professional
• E-work
• Integrated collaboration environment
• Knowledge management
• Mass collaboration
• Pervasive informatics
• Participatory design
• Social peer-to-peer processes
• Virtual research environment

Further reading

Most cited papers

The 47 CSCW Handbook Papers. This paper list is the result of a citation graph analysis of the CSCW Conference. It has been established in 2006 and reviewed by the CSCW Community. This list only contains papers published in one conference; papers published at other venues have also had significant impact on the CSCW community.

The "CSCW handbook" papers were chosen as the overall most cited within the CSCW conference <...> It led to a list of 47 papers, corresponding to about 11% of all papers.

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2. Grudin, J. (1988). "Why CSCW applications fail: problems in the design and evaluation of organization of organizational interfaces". Proceedings of the 1988 ACM conference on Computer-supported cooperative work. ACM Press New York, NY, USA. pp. 85–93.
3. Root, R.W. (1988). "Design of a multi-media vehicle for social browsing". Proceedings of the 1988 ACM conference on Computer-supported cooperative work. ACM Press New York, NY, USA. pp. 25–38.
4. Patterson, J.F.; Hill, R.D.; Rohall, S.L.; Meeks, S.W. (1990). "Rendezvous: an architecture for synchronous multi-user applications". Proceedings of the 1990 ACM conference on Computer-supported cooperative work. ACM Press New York, NY, USA. pp. 317–328.
5. Greenberg, S.; Marwood, D. (1994). "Real time groupware as a distributed system: concurrency control and its effect on the interface". Proceedings of the 1994 ACM conference on Computer supported cooperative work. ACM Press New York, NY, USA. pp. 207–217.
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8. Tang, J.C.; Isaacs, E.A.; Rua, M. (1994). "Supporting distributed groups with a Montage of lightweight interactions". Proceedings of the 1994 ACM conference on Computer supported cooperative work. ACM Press New York, NY, USA. pp. 23–34.
9. Neuwirth, C.M.; Kaufer, D.S.; Chandhok, R.; Morris, J.H. (1990). "Issues in the design of computer support for co-authoring and commenting". Proceedings of the 1990 ACM conference on Computer-supported cooperative work. ACM Press New York, NY, USA. pp. 183–195.
10. Crowley, T.; Milazzo, P.; Baker, E.; Forsdick, H.; Tomlinson, R. (1990). "MMConf: an infrastructure for building shared multimedia applications". Proceedings of the 1990 ACM conference on Computer-supported cooperative work. ACM Press New York, NY, USA. pp. 329–342.
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13. Gaver, W.W. (1992). "The affordances of media spaces for collaboration". Proceedings of the 1992 ACM conference on Computer-supported cooperative work. ACM Press New York, NY, USA. pp. 17–24.
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15. Sun, C.; Ellis, C. (1998). "Operational transformation in real-time group editors: issues, algorithms, and achievements". Proceedings of the 1998 ACM conference on Computer supported cooperative work. ACM Press New York, NY, USA. pp. 59–68.
16. Bly, S.A. (1988). "A use of drawing surfaces in different collaborative settings". Proceedings of the 1988 ACM conference on Computer-supported cooperative work. ACM Press New York, NY, USA. pp. 250–256.
17. Leland, M.D.P.; Fish, R.S.; Kraut, R.E. (1988). "Collaborative document production using quilt". Proceedings of the 1988 ACM conference on Computer-supported cooperative work. ACM Press New York, NY, USA. pp. 206–215.
18. Conklin, J.; Begeman, M.L. (1988). "gIBIS: a hypertext tool for exploratory policy discussion". ACM Transactions on Information Systems. 6 (4): 303–331. doi:10.1145/58566.59297. S2CID 2609461.
19. Bentley, R.; Hughes, J.A.; Randall, D.; Rodden, T.; Sawyer, P.; Shapiro, D.; Sommerville, I. (1992). "Ethnographically-informed systems design for air traffic control". Proceedings of the 1992 ACM conference on Computer-supported cooperative work. ACM Press New York, NY, USA. pp. 123–129.
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External links

• CSCW Conference, ACM CSCW Conference Series
• European CSCW Conference Foundation, European CSCW Conference Series
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