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'''''Dysidea etheria''''', commonly known as the '''ethereal sponge''' or '''heavenly sponge''', is a species of lobate [[sponge]] within the class [[Demosponge|Demospongiae]].<ref name=":0" /> This marine sponge is known for its light blue color and can be found in the [[Caribbean]] as well as off the coasts of [[Florida]] and [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]].<ref name=":3">Diaz M.C. (2011) Mangrove and coral reef sponge faunas: untold stories about shallow water Porifera in the Caribbean. In: Maldonado M., Turon X., Becerro M., Jesús Uriz M. (eds) Ancient Animals, New Challenges. Developments in Hydrobiology, vol 219. Springer, Dordrecht. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4688-6_15</nowiki></ref> Like all other [[Sponge|poriferans]], ''D. etheria'' is capable of both [[Sexual reproduction|sexual]] and [[Asexual reproduction|asexual]] reproduction.<ref name=":4" /> The use of [[Sponge spicule|spicule]] collection as well as chemical defenses allows D. etheria to protect itself against predators such as the [[Felimare zebra|zebra doris]] and the [[orange knobby star]].<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":2" /> ''D. etheria'' is also known as a host species of the invasive brittle star ''Ophiothela mirabilis.''<ref name=":7" /> Lastly, various molecular biology studies have utilized D. etheria to both study foreign particle transport in sponges and to isolate novel molecules.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":9">{{Cite journal| |
'''''Dysidea etheria''''', commonly known as the '''ethereal sponge''' or '''heavenly sponge''', is a species of lobate [[sponge]] within the class [[Demosponge|Demospongiae]].<ref name=":0" /> This marine sponge is known for its light blue color and can be found in the [[Caribbean]] as well as off the coasts of [[Florida]] and [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]].<ref name=":3">Diaz M.C. (2011) Mangrove and coral reef sponge faunas: untold stories about shallow water Porifera in the Caribbean. In: Maldonado M., Turon X., Becerro M., Jesús Uriz M. (eds) Ancient Animals, New Challenges. Developments in Hydrobiology, vol 219. Springer, Dordrecht. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4688-6_15</nowiki></ref> Like all other [[Sponge|poriferans]], ''D. etheria'' is capable of both [[Sexual reproduction|sexual]] and [[Asexual reproduction|asexual]] reproduction.<ref name=":4" /> The use of [[Sponge spicule|spicule]] collection as well as chemical defenses allows D. etheria to protect itself against predators such as the [[Felimare zebra|zebra doris]] and the [[orange knobby star]].<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":2" /> ''D. etheria'' is also known as a host species of the invasive brittle star ''Ophiothela mirabilis.''<ref name=":7" /> Lastly, various molecular biology studies have utilized D. etheria to both study foreign particle transport in sponges and to isolate novel molecules.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last1=Gunasekera|first1=Sarath P.|last2=McCarthy|first2=Peter J.|last3=Kelly-Borges|first3=Michelle|last4=Lobkovsky|first4=Emil|last5=Clardy|first5=Jon|date=1996-01-01|title=Dysidiolide: A Novel Protein Phosphatase Inhibitor from the Caribbean Sponge Dysidea etheria de Laubenfels|url=https://doi.org/10.1021/ja961961+|journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society|volume=118|issue=36|pages=8759–8760|doi=10.1021/ja961961+|issn=0002-7863}}</ref><ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=Teragawa|first=Carolyn K.|date=1986-04-01|title=Particle transport and incorporation during skeleton formation in a keratose sponge: dysidea etheria|url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.2307/1541812|journal=The Biological Bulletin|volume=170|issue=2|pages=321–334|doi=10.2307/1541812|jstor=1541812|issn=0006-3185}}</ref> |
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== Etymology == |
== Etymology == |
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The specific epithet "''etheria''" was given to this species of sponge by Laubenfels upon its discovery in the [[Dry Tortugas]] in 1936 due to its sky-blue color.<ref>{{Cite book|last=De Laubenfels|first=Max Walker|url=http://hdl.handle.net/2027/wu.89036561199|title=A discussion of the sponge fauna of the Dry Tortugas in particular and the West Indies in general,with material for a revision of the families and orders of the Porifera |
The specific epithet "''etheria''" was given to this species of sponge by Laubenfels upon its discovery in the [[Dry Tortugas]] in 1936 due to its sky-blue color.<ref>{{Cite book|last=De Laubenfels|first=Max Walker|url=http://hdl.handle.net/2027/wu.89036561199|title=A discussion of the sponge fauna of the Dry Tortugas in particular and the West Indies in general,with material for a revision of the families and orders of the Porifera|date=1936|publisher=[Washington]|hdl=2027/wu.89036561199}}</ref> |
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== Description == |
== Description == |
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''Dysidea etheria'' is a species of lobate sponge that are massive and semi-incrusting.<ref name=":0" /> They are identifiable by their internal and external light blue coloration.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Wiedenmayer|first=F.|url=https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783034857970|title=Shallow-water sponges of the western Bahamas|date=1977|publisher=Birkhäuser Basel|isbn=978-3-0348-5797-0|series=Experientia Supplementum|pages= |
''Dysidea etheria'' is a species of lobate sponge that are massive and semi-incrusting.<ref name=":0" /> They are identifiable by their internal and external light blue coloration.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Wiedenmayer|first=F.|url=https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783034857970|title=Shallow-water sponges of the western Bahamas|date=1977|publisher=Birkhäuser Basel|isbn=978-3-0348-5797-0|series=Experientia Supplementum|pages=73–74|language=en}}</ref> The exopinacoderm has also been observed to be colored a brownish grey.<ref name=":0" /> |
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The shaping of the sponge's lobes have been described as elongated, digitated, or lamellar.<ref name=":0" /> The size of ''D. etheria'' can range from ten to fifteen centimeters in width and four to seven centimeters in height.<ref name=":0" /> The diameter of the sponge's lobes have been observed to range from two to four centimeters.<ref name=":0" /> |
The shaping of the sponge's lobes have been described as elongated, digitated, or lamellar.<ref name=":0" /> The size of ''D. etheria'' can range from ten to fifteen centimeters in width and four to seven centimeters in height.<ref name=":0" /> The diameter of the sponge's lobes have been observed to range from two to four centimeters.<ref name=":0" /> |
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=== Reproduction === |
=== Reproduction === |
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Both sexual and asexual reproduction are utilized by poriferans.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Pechenik|first=J.A.|title=Biology of the Invertebrates Fourth Edition|publisher=McGraw Hill Companies, Inc.|year=2000|location=Boston|pages=73}}</ref> Sponges are [[Hermaphrodite|hermaphroditic]] when sexual reproduction occurs, utilizing different timing of sperm and egg production.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book| |
Both sexual and asexual reproduction are utilized by poriferans.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Pechenik|first=J.A.|title=Biology of the Invertebrates Fourth Edition|publisher=McGraw Hill Companies, Inc.|year=2000|location=Boston|pages=73}}</ref> Sponges are [[Hermaphrodite|hermaphroditic]] when sexual reproduction occurs, utilizing different timing of sperm and egg production.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last1=Ruppert|first1=E.E.|title=Invertebrate Zoology. Seventh Edition.|last2=Fox|first2=R.S|last3=Barnes|first3=R.D.|publisher=Thomson-Brooks/Cole.|year=2004|location=Belmont, CA}}</ref> ''D. etheria'' asexually reproduce through [[Fragmentation (reproduction)|fragmentation]].<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> The [[Cell potency|totipotent]] abilities of sponge cells allows for fragments of the sponge to regrow into a new sponge.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":6" /> |
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=== Predators === |
=== Predators === |
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The nudibranch ''[[Felimare zebra]]'', and the sea star ''[[Orange knobby star|Echinaster echinophorus]]'' have both been spotted preying on ''D. etheria''.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal| |
The nudibranch ''[[Felimare zebra]]'', and the sea star ''[[Orange knobby star|Echinaster echinophorus]]'' have both been spotted preying on ''D. etheria''.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Grode|first1=Stephen H.|last2=Cardellina|first2=John H.|date=1984|title=Sesquiterpenes from the Sponge Dysidea etheria and the Nudibranch Hypselodoris zebra|url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1021/np50031a009?casa_token=IWY3x0KQK3oAAAAA:1UHX-c1rClLijrZXQQ30xzYIjyvhLfSAijlwOXMtQ8ko7FGfIPr1gOWH_3giEsS0nl_kaBJaxZvkD8Nr|journal=Journal of Natural Products|volume=47|issue=1|pages=76–83|doi=10.1021/np50031a009|issn=0163-3864}}</ref> |
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=== Defenses === |
=== Defenses === |
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Through the collection and storage of spicule fragments within the mesohyl, ''D. etheria'' is capable of deterring predators.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Cowden|first=R.R.|date=1970|title=Connective Tissue in Six Marine Sponges: A Histological and Histochemical Study|journal=Special Edition Magazine for Microscopic-Anatomical Research|volume=82 |
Through the collection and storage of spicule fragments within the mesohyl, ''D. etheria'' is capable of deterring predators.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Cowden|first=R.R.|date=1970|title=Connective Tissue in Six Marine Sponges: A Histological and Histochemical Study|journal=Special Edition Magazine for Microscopic-Anatomical Research|volume=82|issue=4|pages=557–569|pmid=5501157}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Teragawa|first=C.K.|date=1985|title=Mechanical Function and Regulation of the skeletal Network in Dysidea|journal=3rd International Sponge Conference}}</ref> The production of toxins is also believed to act as a defense against predators.<ref name=":2" /> Chemical extracts from ''D. etheria'' have been shown to be deterrents to generalist reef fishes, hermit crabs, and sea stars.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Waddell|first1=B.|last2=Pawlik|first2=J. R.|date=2000|title=Defenses of Caribbean sponges against invertebrate predators. II. Assays with sea stars.|url=|journal=Marine Ecology Progress Series|volume=195|pages=133–144|doi=10.3354/meps195133|bibcode=2000MEPS..195..133W|doi-access=free}}</ref> |
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=== Host species === |
=== Host species === |
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[[File:Ophiothela mirabilis on Dysidea etheria.jpg|thumb|''Ophiothela mirabilis'' on host species ''Dysidea etheria'']] |
[[File:Ophiothela mirabilis on Dysidea etheria.jpg|thumb|''Ophiothela mirabilis'' on host species ''Dysidea etheria'']] |
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''D. etheria'' is registered as one of many host species of the invasive brittle star ''Ophiothela mirabilis.''<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal| |
''D. etheria'' is registered as one of many host species of the invasive brittle star ''Ophiothela mirabilis.''<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last1=Mantelatto|first1=Marcelo Checoli|last2=Vidon|first2=Lara Figueiredo|last3=Silveira|first3=Rosana Beatriz|last4=Menegola|first4=Carla|last5=Rocha|first5=Rosana Moreira da|last6=Creed|first6=Joel Christopher|date=2016-03-30|title=Host species of the non-indigenous brittle star Ophiothela mirabilis (Echinodermata: Ophiuroidea): an invasive generalist in Brazil?|journal=Marine Biodiversity Records|volume=9|issue=1|pages=8|doi=10.1186/s41200-016-0013-x|issn=1755-2672|doi-access=free}}</ref> Utilizing a host species is believed to protect ''O. mirabilis'' from predation and allow for new environments to be colonized more easily.<ref name=":7" /> |
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== Biochemistry == |
== Biochemistry == |
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''D. etheria'' was the first recorded sponge to have plant growth regulatory indoles isolated from it.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal| |
''D. etheria'' was the first recorded sponge to have plant growth regulatory indoles isolated from it.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last1=Cardellina|first1=John H.|last2=Nigh|first2=David|last3=VanWagenen|first3=Bradford C.|date=1986|title=Plant Growth Regulatory Indoles from the Sponges Dysidea etheria and Ulosa ruetzleri|url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1021/np50048a015?casa_token=Lmxok8EW4PcAAAAA:MkV3xkiDMFhUjUx8eQSrAViF_xJcenuSAALsVAuLOgrL7l3FtXGDC1SosFKdK-bk80th0RAotNjGAYLa|journal=Journal of Natural Products|volume=49|issue=6|pages=1065–1067|doi=10.1021/np50048a015|issn=0163-3864}}</ref> The plant growth regulator, indole-3-acetamide, promotes the growth of roots in lettuce seedlings.<ref name=":8" /> |
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A new protein phosphatase inhibitor, named dysidiolide, was also isolated from ''D. etheria''.<ref name=":9" /> |
A new protein phosphatase inhibitor, named dysidiolide, was also isolated from ''D. etheria''.<ref name=":9" /> |
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Revision as of 05:11, 24 May 2021
| Dysidea etheria | |
|---|---|
| |
| A preserved specimen from the Caribbean | |
Scientific classification 
| |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Porifera |
| Class: | Demospongiae |
| Order: | Dictyoceratida |
| Family: | Dysideidae |
| Genus: | Dysidea |
| Species: | D. etheria
|
| Binomial name | |
| Dysidea etheria Laubenfels, 1936
| |
Dysidea etheria, commonly known as the ethereal sponge or heavenly sponge, is a species of lobate sponge within the class Demospongiae.[1] This marine sponge is known for its light blue color and can be found in the Caribbean as well as off the coasts of Florida and Georgia.[2] Like all other poriferans, D. etheria is capable of both sexual and asexual reproduction.[3] The use of spicule collection as well as chemical defenses allows D. etheria to protect itself against predators such as the zebra doris and the orange knobby star.[4][5] D. etheria is also known as a host species of the invasive brittle star Ophiothela mirabilis.[6] Lastly, various molecular biology studies have utilized D. etheria to both study foreign particle transport in sponges and to isolate novel molecules.[7][8][9]
Etymology
The specific epithet "etheria" was given to this species of sponge by Laubenfels upon its discovery in the Dry Tortugas in 1936 due to its sky-blue color.[10]
Description
Dysidea etheria is a species of lobate sponge that are massive and semi-incrusting.[1] They are identifiable by their internal and external light blue coloration.[1] The exopinacoderm has also been observed to be colored a brownish grey.[1]
The shaping of the sponge's lobes have been described as elongated, digitated, or lamellar.[1] The size of D. etheria can range from ten to fifteen centimeters in width and four to seven centimeters in height.[1] The diameter of the sponge's lobes have been observed to range from two to four centimeters.[1]
The sponge's oscula, ranging from five to ten millimeters in width, are typically found on the tops of its lobes.[1] The oscula also have a transparent iris-membrane, and the oscular membrane openings have occasionally been observed to be compound.[1] One millimeter high sharp conules make up the surface of the sponge and are spaced three millimeters apart.[1]
D. etheria has a thin exopinacoderm and a flesh-like choanosome.[1] The sponge also has an irregular skeleton which is loosely fibroreticular. Calcareous debris is contained within the white fibers with which the skeleton is made up of.[1]
Habitat and distribution
Found within marine environments of depths reaching up to 40 meters, D. etheria inhabits bays and lagoons.[11] This species has been spotted on a variety of natural and manmade substrates. A majority of such substrates are known to be hard and vertical, such as on docks or pilings.[11] Another manmade substrate is the hull of a concrete ship where D. etheria was seen on a scleractinian.[1] As for natural substrates, D. etheria has been seen on rocks, turtle grass blades, mangrove roots, mollusk and crab shells, coral skeletons, algae, and even other sponges.[1][11]
D. etheria is known to be distributed across the Caribbean as well as off the coasts of Florida and Georgia.[2]
Ecology
Reproduction
Both sexual and asexual reproduction are utilized by poriferans.[3] Sponges are hermaphroditic when sexual reproduction occurs, utilizing different timing of sperm and egg production.[12] D. etheria asexually reproduce through fragmentation.[3][12] The totipotent abilities of sponge cells allows for fragments of the sponge to regrow into a new sponge.[3][4]
Predators
The nudibranch Felimare zebra, and the sea star Echinaster echinophorus have both been spotted preying on D. etheria.[5]
Defenses
Through the collection and storage of spicule fragments within the mesohyl, D. etheria is capable of deterring predators.[4][13] The production of toxins is also believed to act as a defense against predators.[5] Chemical extracts from D. etheria have been shown to be deterrents to generalist reef fishes, hermit crabs, and sea stars.[14]
Host species
D. etheria is registered as one of many host species of the invasive brittle star Ophiothela mirabilis.[6] Utilizing a host species is believed to protect O. mirabilis from predation and allow for new environments to be colonized more easily.[6]
Biochemistry
D. etheria was the first recorded sponge to have plant growth regulatory indoles isolated from it.[7] The plant growth regulator, indole-3-acetamide, promotes the growth of roots in lettuce seedlings.[7]
A new protein phosphatase inhibitor, named dysidiolide, was also isolated from D. etheria.[8]
D. etheria has also been utilized in research to understand how sponges transport foreign particles to specific locations within their bodies.[9] Mesohyl cells have been observed to migrate in a coordinated fashion that allows for organized transport of particles.[9]
References
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Wiedenmayer, F. (1977). Shallow-water sponges of the western Bahamas. Experientia Supplementum. Birkhäuser Basel. pp. 73–74. ISBN 978-3-0348-5797-0.
- ^ a b Diaz M.C. (2011) Mangrove and coral reef sponge faunas: untold stories about shallow water Porifera in the Caribbean. In: Maldonado M., Turon X., Becerro M., Jesús Uriz M. (eds) Ancient Animals, New Challenges. Developments in Hydrobiology, vol 219. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4688-6_15
- ^ a b c d Pechenik, J.A. (2000). Biology of the Invertebrates Fourth Edition. Boston: McGraw Hill Companies, Inc. p. 73.
- ^ a b c Cowden, R.R. (1970). "Connective Tissue in Six Marine Sponges: A Histological and Histochemical Study". Special Edition Magazine for Microscopic-Anatomical Research. 82 (4): 557–569. PMID 5501157.
- ^ a b c Grode, Stephen H.; Cardellina, John H. (1984). "Sesquiterpenes from the Sponge Dysidea etheria and the Nudibranch Hypselodoris zebra". Journal of Natural Products. 47 (1): 76–83. doi:10.1021/np50031a009. ISSN 0163-3864.
- ^ a b c Mantelatto, Marcelo Checoli; Vidon, Lara Figueiredo; Silveira, Rosana Beatriz; Menegola, Carla; Rocha, Rosana Moreira da; Creed, Joel Christopher (2016-03-30). "Host species of the non-indigenous brittle star Ophiothela mirabilis (Echinodermata: Ophiuroidea): an invasive generalist in Brazil?". Marine Biodiversity Records. 9 (1): 8. doi:10.1186/s41200-016-0013-x. ISSN 1755-2672.
- ^ a b c Cardellina, John H.; Nigh, David; VanWagenen, Bradford C. (1986). "Plant Growth Regulatory Indoles from the Sponges Dysidea etheria and Ulosa ruetzleri". Journal of Natural Products. 49 (6): 1065–1067. doi:10.1021/np50048a015. ISSN 0163-3864.
- ^ a b Gunasekera, Sarath P.; McCarthy, Peter J.; Kelly-Borges, Michelle; Lobkovsky, Emil; Clardy, Jon (1996-01-01). "Dysidiolide: A Novel Protein Phosphatase Inhibitor from the Caribbean Sponge Dysidea etheria de Laubenfels". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 118 (36): 8759–8760. doi:10.1021/ja961961+. ISSN 0002-7863.
- ^ a b c Teragawa, Carolyn K. (1986-04-01). "Particle transport and incorporation during skeleton formation in a keratose sponge: dysidea etheria". The Biological Bulletin. 170 (2): 321–334. doi:10.2307/1541812. ISSN 0006-3185. JSTOR 1541812.
- ^ De Laubenfels, Max Walker (1936). A discussion of the sponge fauna of the Dry Tortugas in particular and the West Indies in general,with material for a revision of the families and orders of the Porifera. [Washington]. hdl:2027/wu.89036561199.
- ^ a b c Sterrer, W. (1986). Marine Fauna and Flora of Bermuda: A Systematic Guide to Identification of Marine Organisms. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
- ^ a b Ruppert, E.E.; Fox, R.S; Barnes, R.D. (2004). Invertebrate Zoology. Seventh Edition. Belmont, CA: Thomson-Brooks/Cole.
- ^ Teragawa, C.K. (1985). "Mechanical Function and Regulation of the skeletal Network in Dysidea". 3rd International Sponge Conference.
- ^ Waddell, B.; Pawlik, J. R. (2000). "Defenses of Caribbean sponges against invertebrate predators. II. Assays with sea stars". Marine Ecology Progress Series. 195: 133–144. Bibcode:2000MEPS..195..133W. doi:10.3354/meps195133.
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