16-Androstene: Difference between revisions
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== Background == |
== Background == |
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The 16-Androstene steroid is most commonly found and produced in [[Wild boar|boar]] testicle, specifically in un-castrated male pigs, which results in a foul odor.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal| |
The 16-Androstene steroid is most commonly found and produced in [[Wild boar|boar]] testicle, specifically in un-castrated male pigs, which results in a foul odor.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Sinclair|first1=P.A.|last2=Hancock|first2=S.|last3=Gilmore|first3=W.J.|last4=Squires|first4=E.J|date=June 2005|title=Metabolism of the 16-androstene steroids in primary cultured porcine hepatocytes|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0960076005001408|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume= 96| issue = 1|pages=79–87|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2005.01.030|pmid=15896952|s2cid=9435153|via=Hunter College Library}}</ref> This foul odor typically has a [[urine]]-like or [[skatole]] odor which is as a result of high concentration and levels of the 16-Androstene steroid found in the boar's [[Adipose tissue]], that is observed when the boar fat is cooked on heat.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Moe|first1=Maren|last2=Lien|first2=Sigbjørn|last3=Bendixen|first3=Christian|last4=Hedegaard|first4=Jakob|last5=Hornshøj|first5=Henrik|last6=Berget|first6=Ingunn|last7=Meuwissen|first7=Theo HE|last8=Grindflek|first8=Eli|date=August 8, 2008|title=Gene expression profiles in liver of pigs with extreme high and low levels of androstenone|journal=OneFile: Health and Medicine|publisher=BioMed Central Ltd.|volume=BMC Veterinary Research, Volume 4|pages=29|doi=10.1186/1746-6148-4-29|pmid=18684314|pmc=2535776}}</ref> The 16-Androstene acts as a [[pheromone]] which is transported in a boar's body through the bloodstream to the [[salivary gland]]s and is metabolized in the [[liver]] which produces alpha and beta-androstenol.<ref name=":1" /> The reason why the 16-Androstene steroid is essential in the overall population of boars is because it plays a vital role in the mating process, specifically attracting gilts.<ref name=":1" /> The 16-Androstene steroid is a vital steroid to study in order to better understand varying [[gene]]s and metabolic pathways and its relation to the similarities and differences observed in human axillary odors. |
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== Research Findings == |
== Research Findings == |
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The 16-Androstene steroid is a compound of interest in various research relating to the topic of steroid-based [[Odor|malodour]]. Most of the research conducted on the 16-Androstene steroid is done by experimentation of boars, often looking at various [[metabolic pathway]]s and [[genetics]] which are similar and different in varying breeds of boars.<ref name=":1" /> These studies are conducted in order to utilize the research conducted on boars to better understand human axillary odors. Research conducted by Gower in 1994 suggested that the 16-Androstene along with other steroids such as the [[Androstenone|5α-androstenol]] and [[5α-Androstenone|5α-androstenone]], are prevelent in [[apocrine sweat gland]]s.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal| |
The 16-Androstene steroid is a compound of interest in various research relating to the topic of steroid-based [[Odor|malodour]]. Most of the research conducted on the 16-Androstene steroid is done by experimentation of boars, often looking at various [[metabolic pathway]]s and [[genetics]] which are similar and different in varying breeds of boars.<ref name=":1" /> These studies are conducted in order to utilize the research conducted on boars to better understand human axillary odors. Research conducted by Gower in 1994 suggested that the 16-Androstene along with other steroids such as the [[Androstenone|5α-androstenol]] and [[5α-Androstenone|5α-androstenone]], are prevelent in [[apocrine sweat gland]]s.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Gordon James|first1=A.|last2=J. Austin|first2=Corrine|last3=S. Cox|first3=Diana|last4=Taylor|first4=David|last5=David|first5=Ralph|date=March 1, 2013|title=Microbiological and biochemical origins of human axillary odour|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23278215/|journal=FEMS Microbiology Ecology|volume= 83| issue = 3|pages=527–540|doi=10.1111/1574-6941.12054|pmid=23278215|via=Oxford Academic, Hunter College Library}}</ref> Later research by Austin and Ellis in 2003 revealed through the use of [[mass spectrometry]] (MS) and [[gas chromatography]] (GC), that the 16-Androstene steroid was present on axillary skin which determined that axillary bacteria is able to create 16-androstenes steriods from the bacterias that had the C16 [[double bond]] already present.<ref name=":2" /> Other research indicates that 3[beta]-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (3[beta]-HSD) plays a vital role in the metabolism of [[androstenone]].<ref name=":1" /> When looking at the adipose tissue of a boar, it was also observed that there were high levels of androstenone when there was a low expression of [[enzyme]]s, [[protein]] and [[Messenger RNA|mRNA]] showing a negative trend.<ref name=":1" /> Additionally, some research indicates that the presence of the 16-Androstene steroid contributes significantly to the role and function of the liver which is to participate in phase II conjugation metabolism.<ref name=":0" /> These were some of the research findings from various articles illustrating the role that the 16-Androstene steroid plays in metabolic pathways and genetics. All of these research findings are able to assist in better understanding [[gene]]s, metabolic pathways, and enzymes which will aid in scientists understanding how to diminish boar taint / odor. |
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== Research Methods == |
== Research Methods == |
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Revision as of 03:33, 15 June 2021
16-Androstenes, or androst-16-enes, are a class of endogenous androstane steroids that includes androstadienol, androstadienone, androstenone, and androstenol, which are pheromones.[1] Some of the 16-androstenes, such as androstenone and androstenol, are odorous, and have been confirmed to contribute to human malodor.[2]
Background
The 16-Androstene steroid is most commonly found and produced in boar testicle, specifically in un-castrated male pigs, which results in a foul odor.[3] This foul odor typically has a urine-like or skatole odor which is as a result of high concentration and levels of the 16-Androstene steroid found in the boar's Adipose tissue, that is observed when the boar fat is cooked on heat.[3][4] The 16-Androstene acts as a pheromone which is transported in a boar's body through the bloodstream to the salivary glands and is metabolized in the liver which produces alpha and beta-androstenol.[4] The reason why the 16-Androstene steroid is essential in the overall population of boars is because it plays a vital role in the mating process, specifically attracting gilts.[4] The 16-Androstene steroid is a vital steroid to study in order to better understand varying genes and metabolic pathways and its relation to the similarities and differences observed in human axillary odors.
Research Findings
The 16-Androstene steroid is a compound of interest in various research relating to the topic of steroid-based malodour. Most of the research conducted on the 16-Androstene steroid is done by experimentation of boars, often looking at various metabolic pathways and genetics which are similar and different in varying breeds of boars.[4] These studies are conducted in order to utilize the research conducted on boars to better understand human axillary odors. Research conducted by Gower in 1994 suggested that the 16-Androstene along with other steroids such as the 5α-androstenol and 5α-androstenone, are prevelent in apocrine sweat glands.[5] Later research by Austin and Ellis in 2003 revealed through the use of mass spectrometry (MS) and gas chromatography (GC), that the 16-Androstene steroid was present on axillary skin which determined that axillary bacteria is able to create 16-androstenes steriods from the bacterias that had the C16 double bond already present.[5] Other research indicates that 3[beta]-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (3[beta]-HSD) plays a vital role in the metabolism of androstenone.[4] When looking at the adipose tissue of a boar, it was also observed that there were high levels of androstenone when there was a low expression of enzymes, protein and mRNA showing a negative trend.[4] Additionally, some research indicates that the presence of the 16-Androstene steroid contributes significantly to the role and function of the liver which is to participate in phase II conjugation metabolism.[3] These were some of the research findings from various articles illustrating the role that the 16-Androstene steroid plays in metabolic pathways and genetics. All of these research findings are able to assist in better understanding genes, metabolic pathways, and enzymes which will aid in scientists understanding how to diminish boar taint / odor.
Research Methods
A variety of research methods were utilized in multiple research articles to gather vital information on the 16-Androstene steroid. Methods such as PCR, mass spectrometry (MS), gas chromatography (GC), solid-phase chromatography, microarray technology, and various other methods were utilized in the research articles to understand the 16-Androstene steroid.
See also
References
- ^ Gower, D. B.; Ruparelia, B. A. (1993). "Olfaction in humans with special reference to odorous 16-androstenes: their occurrence, perception and possible social, psychological and sexual impact". Journal of Endocrinology. 137 (2): 167–187. doi:10.1677/joe.0.1370167. ISSN 0022-0795. PMID 8326246.
- ^ Murielle Meunier (June 2014). Combatting body odor by the means of microbial transplantations (PDF) (Master in Bio-science engineering). Universiteit Gent.
- ^ a b c Sinclair, P.A.; Hancock, S.; Gilmore, W.J.; Squires, E.J (June 2005). "Metabolism of the 16-androstene steroids in primary cultured porcine hepatocytes". The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. 96 (1): 79–87. doi:10.1016/j.jsbmb.2005.01.030. PMID 15896952. S2CID 9435153 – via Hunter College Library.
- ^ a b c d e f Moe, Maren; Lien, Sigbjørn; Bendixen, Christian; Hedegaard, Jakob; Hornshøj, Henrik; Berget, Ingunn; Meuwissen, Theo HE; Grindflek, Eli (August 8, 2008). "Gene expression profiles in liver of pigs with extreme high and low levels of androstenone". OneFile: Health and Medicine. BMC Veterinary Research, Volume 4. BioMed Central Ltd.: 29. doi:10.1186/1746-6148-4-29. PMC 2535776. PMID 18684314.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - ^ a b Gordon James, A.; J. Austin, Corrine; S. Cox, Diana; Taylor, David; David, Ralph (March 1, 2013). "Microbiological and biochemical origins of human axillary odour". FEMS Microbiology Ecology. 83 (3): 527–540. doi:10.1111/1574-6941.12054. PMID 23278215 – via Oxford Academic, Hunter College Library.