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'''''Automeris io''''', the '''Io moth ({{respell|EYE-oh}}) or peacock moth''', is a colorful North American moth in the family [[Saturniidae]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Species Automeris io - Io Moth - Hodges#7746|url=https://bugguide.net/node/view/405|access-date=2022-02-22|website=bugguide.net}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Triant|first=Deborah A|date=2016|title=Genome assembly and annotation of the io moth,Automeris io(Lepidoptera: Saturniidae)|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1603/ice.2016.114514|journal=2016 International Congress of Entomology|publisher=Entomological Society of America|doi=10.1603/ice.2016.114514}}</ref> The io moth is also a member of the subfamily [[Hemileucinae]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|title=Io moth Automeris io (Fabricius, 1775) {{!}} Butterflies and Moths of North America|url=https://www.butterfliesandmoths.org/species/Automeris-io|access-date=2022-02-16|website=www.butterfliesandmoths.org}}</ref> The name Io comes from Greek mythology in which Io was a mortal lover of Zeus.<ref name=":62">{{Cite web|title=Io Moth (Automeris io)|url=https://www.insectidentification.org/insect-description.php?identification=Io-Moth|access-date=2022-02-16|website=www.insectidentification.org}}</ref> The Io moth ranges from the southeast corner of [[Manitoba]] and in the southern extremes of [[Ontario]], [[Quebec]], [[New Brunswick]] and [[Nova Scotia]] in [[Canada]], and in the US it is found from [[Montana]], [[North Dakota]], [[South Dakota]], [[Nebraska]], [[Colorado]], [[New Mexico]], [[Texas]], [[Utah]], east of those states and down to the southern end of [[Florida]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Eric Hossler, Dirk Elston, and David Wagner |
'''''Automeris io''''', the '''Io moth ({{respell|EYE-oh}}) or peacock moth''', is a colorful North American moth in the family [[Saturniidae]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Species Automeris io - Io Moth - Hodges#7746|url=https://bugguide.net/node/view/405|access-date=2022-02-22|website=bugguide.net}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Triant|first=Deborah A|date=2016|title=Genome assembly and annotation of the io moth,Automeris io(Lepidoptera: Saturniidae)|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1603/ice.2016.114514|journal=2016 International Congress of Entomology|publisher=Entomological Society of America|doi=10.1603/ice.2016.114514}}</ref> The io moth is also a member of the subfamily [[Hemileucinae]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|title=Io moth Automeris io (Fabricius, 1775) {{!}} Butterflies and Moths of North America|url=https://www.butterfliesandmoths.org/species/Automeris-io|access-date=2022-02-16|website=www.butterfliesandmoths.org}}</ref> The name Io comes from Greek mythology in which Io was a mortal lover of Zeus.<ref name=":62">{{Cite web|title=Io Moth (Automeris io)|url=https://www.insectidentification.org/insect-description.php?identification=Io-Moth|access-date=2022-02-16|website=www.insectidentification.org}}</ref> The Io moth ranges from the southeast corner of [[Manitoba]] and in the southern extremes of [[Ontario]], [[Quebec]], [[New Brunswick]] and [[Nova Scotia]] in [[Canada]], and in the US it is found from [[Montana]], [[North Dakota]], [[South Dakota]], [[Nebraska]], [[Colorado]], [[New Mexico]], [[Texas]], [[Utah]], east of those states and down to the southern end of [[Florida]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Eric Hossler, Dirk Elston, and David Wagner|date=2008|title=What's Eating You? Automeris io|url=https://cdn.mdedge.com/files/s3fs-public/Document/September-2017/082010021.pdf|journal=Close Encounters with the Environment|volume=82|pages=21–24}}</ref> The species was first described by [[Johan Christian Fabricius]] in 1775. |
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==Adult description== |
==Adult description== |
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[[File:- 7746 – Automeris io – Io Moth (27522147070).jpg|thumb|278x278px|Adult male io moth]] |
[[File:- 7746 – Automeris io – Io Moth (27522147070).jpg|thumb|278x278px|Adult male io moth]] |
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[[Imago|Imagines]] (sexually mature, reproductive stage) have a wingspan of 2.5–3.5 inches (63–88 mm).<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1" /> This species is [[Sexual dimorphism|sexually dimorphic]], males having bright yellow forewings, body, and legs, while females have reddish-brown to purple forewings, body, and legs.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=io moth - Automeris io (Fabricius)|url=https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/misc/io_moth.htm|access-date=2022-02-11|website=entnemdept.ufl.edu}}</ref><ref name=":6" /> The males also have much bigger plumose (feathery) [[Antenna (biology)|antennae]] than the females.<ref name=":2" /> There have been instances of [[gynandromorphism]] in io moths.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sourakov|first=Andrei|date=2015|title=Gynandromorphism in Automeris io (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae)|url=https://www.researchgate.net |
[[Imago|Imagines]] (sexually mature, reproductive stage) have a wingspan of 2.5–3.5 inches (63–88 mm).<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1" /> This species is [[Sexual dimorphism|sexually dimorphic]], males having bright yellow forewings, body, and legs, while females have reddish-brown to purple forewings, body, and legs.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=io moth - Automeris io (Fabricius)|url=https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/misc/io_moth.htm|access-date=2022-02-11|website=entnemdept.ufl.edu}}</ref><ref name=":6" /> The males also have much bigger plumose (feathery) [[Antenna (biology)|antennae]] than the females.<ref name=":2" /> There have been instances of [[gynandromorphism]] in io moths.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sourakov|first=Andrei|date=2015|title=Gynandromorphism in Automeris io (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae)|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/321838167|journal=News of the Lepidopterists' Society|volume=57|pages=118–129|via=Research Gate}}</ref> Both males and females have one big black to bluish [[Eyespot (mimicry)|eyespot]] with some white in the center, on each hindwing.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Sourakov|first=Andrei|date=2017-09-26|title=Giving eyespots a shiner: Pharmacologic manipulation of the Io moth wing pattern|journal=F1000Research|volume=6|pages=1319|doi=10.12688/f1000research.12258.2|issn=2046-1402|pmc=5629545|pmid=29057069}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Stevens|first=Martin|date=November 2005|title=The role of eyespots as anti-predator mechanisms, principally demonstrated in the Lepidoptera|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/biological-reviews/article/abs/role-of-eyespots-as-antipredator-mechanisms-principally-demonstrated-in-the-lepidoptera/F915D76EAC12BE1D68C08376FF951150|journal=Biological Reviews|language=en|volume=80|issue=4|pages=573–588|doi=10.1017/S1464793105006810|pmid=16221330|s2cid=24868603|issn=1469-185X}}</ref> Some hybridizations have resulted in variations in these hindwing [[Eyespot (mimicry)|eyespots]].<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":4" /> Adults live 1–2 weeks. |
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[[File:- 7746 – Automeris io – Io Moth (47990121411).jpg|thumb|277x277px|Eyespots on a female moth]] |
[[File:- 7746 – Automeris io – Io Moth (47990121411).jpg|thumb|277x277px|Eyespots on a female moth]] |
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== Parasitoids == |
== Parasitoids == |
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Many species of flies ([[Tachinidae]]) and wasps ([[Ichneumonidae]] and [[Braconidae]]) are known parasitoids.<ref name=":2" /> The flies: the introduced [[Compsilura concinnata]]'', [[Lespesia]] sabroskyi, [[Chetogena]]'' ''claripennis'', [[Carcelia]] ''formosa'', [[Sisyropa]] ''eudryae, [[Lespesia]] frenchii, and [[Nilea]] dimmocki''.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meigen|first=Johann Wilhelm|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.13731|title=Systematische Beschreibung der bekannten europäischen zweiflugeligen Insekten / von Johann Wilhelm Meigen.|date=1818|publisher=s.n.|location=s.l. }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal| |
Many species of flies ([[Tachinidae]]) and wasps ([[Ichneumonidae]] and [[Braconidae]]) are known parasitoids.<ref name=":2" /> The flies: the introduced [[Compsilura concinnata]]'', [[Lespesia]] sabroskyi, [[Chetogena]]'' ''claripennis'', [[Carcelia]] ''formosa'', [[Sisyropa]] ''eudryae, [[Lespesia]] frenchii, and [[Nilea]] dimmocki''.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Meigen|first=Johann Wilhelm|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.13731|title=Systematische Beschreibung der bekannten europäischen zweiflugeligen Insekten / von Johann Wilhelm Meigen.|date=1818|publisher=s.n.|location=s.l. |doi=10.5962/bhl.title.13731}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=O’Hara|first1=James E.|last2=Wood|first2=D. Monty|title=Tachinidae (Diptera): Nomenclatural Review and Changes, Primarily for America North of Mexico|date=December 1998|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4039/ent130751-6|journal=The Canadian Entomologist|volume=130|issue=6|pages=751–774|doi=10.4039/ent130751-6|issn=0008-347X}}</ref> The [[Ichneumonidae]] wasps: [[Hyposoter]] ''fugitivus and [[Enicospilus]] americanus''.<ref name=":2" /> Then the [[Braconidae]] wasps: [[Cotesia]] ''electrae and [[Cotesia]] hemileucae''.<ref name=":2" /> |
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== Predators == |
== Predators == |
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== Defenses == |
== Defenses == |
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Stinging spines of [[caterpillar]] Io moths have a very painful [[venom]] that is released with the slightest touch; a condition known as erucism. There are two hypotheses regarding where this [[venom]] originates: (1) the glandular cells on the base of the branched [[seta]] or (2) from the secretory [[Epithelium|epithelial]] cells.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ellis, Elston, Hossler, Cowper, and Rapini|date=2021|title=What's Eating You? Caterpillars|url=https://cdn.mdedge.com/files/s3fs-public/CT108006346_0_0.PDF|journal=Close Encounters with the Environment|volume=108|pages=346–351}}</ref> Contacting the [[seta]] is not life-threatening for humans, but still causes irritation to the [[Dermis|dermal]] tissue, thought to result in a stinging sensation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Villas-Boasa, Alvarez-Floresb, Chudzinski-Tavassib, and Tambourgi|date=2016|title=Envenomation by Caterpillars|url=https://www.researchgate.net |
Stinging spines of [[caterpillar]] Io moths have a very painful [[venom]] that is released with the slightest touch; a condition known as erucism. There are two hypotheses regarding where this [[venom]] originates: (1) the glandular cells on the base of the branched [[seta]] or (2) from the secretory [[Epithelium|epithelial]] cells.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ellis, Elston, Hossler, Cowper, and Rapini|date=2021|title=What's Eating You? Caterpillars|url=https://cdn.mdedge.com/files/s3fs-public/CT108006346_0_0.PDF|journal=Close Encounters with the Environment|volume=108|pages=346–351}}</ref> Contacting the [[seta]] is not life-threatening for humans, but still causes irritation to the [[Dermis|dermal]] tissue, thought to result in a stinging sensation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Villas-Boasa, Alvarez-Floresb, Chudzinski-Tavassib, and Tambourgi|date=2016|title=Envenomation by Caterpillars|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/324176948|journal=Clinical Toxinology in Asia Pacific and Africa|volume=57|pages=1–17}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=JONES|first1=DAVID L.|last2=MILLER|first2=JOSEPH H.|date=1959-01-01|title=Pathology of the Dermatitis Produced by the Urticating Caterpillar, Automeris Io|url=https://doi.org/10.1001/archderm.1959.01560130083009|journal=A.M.A. Archives of Dermatology|volume=79|issue=1|pages=81–85|doi=10.1001/archderm.1959.01560130083009|pmid=13605279|issn=0096-5359}}</ref> |
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Both male and female adult io moths utilize their hindwing [[Eyespot (mimicry)|eyespots]] in predatory defense when the moth is sitting in the head-down position or is touched, via shaking and exposing these eyespots.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":6">{{Cite web|title=Io Moth|url=https://mdc.mo.gov/discover-nature/field-guide/io-moth|access-date=2022-02-23|website=Missouri Department of Conservation|language=en}}</ref> |
Both male and female adult io moths utilize their hindwing [[Eyespot (mimicry)|eyespots]] in predatory defense when the moth is sitting in the head-down position or is touched, via shaking and exposing these eyespots.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":6">{{Cite web|title=Io Moth|url=https://mdc.mo.gov/discover-nature/field-guide/io-moth|access-date=2022-02-23|website=Missouri Department of Conservation|language=en}}</ref> |
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* ''[[Cornus florida]]''—flowering dogwood |
* ''[[Cornus florida]]''—flowering dogwood |
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* ''[[Corylus avellana]]''—common hazel |
* ''[[Corylus avellana]]''—common hazel |
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* [[Erythrina herbacea]], coral bean<ref>{{Cite |
* [[Erythrina herbacea]], coral bean<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Access Suspended|url=https://bioone.org/access-suspended|access-date=2022-02-16|website=bioone.org|doi=10.18473/lepi.v67i4.a6|s2cid=87172312}}</ref> |
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* ''[[Beech|Fagus]]''—beech |
* ''[[Beech|Fagus]]''—beech |
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* ''[[Fraxinus]]''—ash |
* ''[[Fraxinus]]''—ash |
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* ''[[Liquidambar styraciflua]]''—American sweetgum |
* ''[[Liquidambar styraciflua]]''—American sweetgum |
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* [[Lythrum salicaria]], introduced Purple Loosestrife<ref>{{Cite journal| |
* [[Lythrum salicaria]], introduced Purple Loosestrife<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Barbour|first1=James|last2=Kiviat|first2=Erik|date=2018-01-10|title=Introduced Purple Loosestrife as Host of Native Saturniidae (Lepidoptera)|url=https://scholar.valpo.edu/tgle/vol30/iss2/8|journal=The Great Lakes Entomologist|volume=30|issue=2|issn=0090-0222}}</ref> |
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* ''[[Quercus]]''—oak[[Image:Automeris io eggs 48hr.jpg|thumb|right|Eggs, about 48 hours after they were laid, on a [[Persea|bay tree]] leaf|239x239px]] |
* ''[[Quercus]]''—oak[[Image:Automeris io eggs 48hr.jpg|thumb|right|Eggs, about 48 hours after they were laid, on a [[Persea|bay tree]] leaf|239x239px]] |
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* ''[[Paeonia × suffruticosa|Paeonia]]—peony'' |
* ''[[Paeonia × suffruticosa|Paeonia]]—peony'' |
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== Conservation Status == |
== Conservation Status == |
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The io moth is currently not listed on the [[IUCN Red List]] or the US Federal List.<ref name=":7" /> In the eastern range of the US, the populations indicate a declining and more localized trend.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wagner|first=David|date=2012|title=Conservation Matters: Moth Decline in the Northeastern United States|url=https://www.lepsoc.org/sites/all/themes/nevia/lepsoc/Conservation%20Matters%20-%20Moth%20decline.pdf|journal=News of the |
The io moth is currently not listed on the [[IUCN Red List]] or the US Federal List.<ref name=":7" /> In the eastern range of the US, the populations indicate a declining and more localized trend.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wagner|first=David|date=2012|title=Conservation Matters: Moth Decline in the Northeastern United States|url=https://www.lepsoc.org/sites/all/themes/nevia/lepsoc/Conservation%20Matters%20-%20Moth%20decline.pdf|journal=News of the Lepidopterists' Society|volume=54|pages=52–55}}</ref><ref name=":7" /> [[File:Automeris io Titian Peale 1833.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|''Automeris io'' by [[Titian Peale]], 1833]] |
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==See also== |
==See also== |
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Revision as of 02:54, 4 March 2022
 | This article includes a list of general references, but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. (July 2017) |
| Io moth | |
|---|---|
| |
| Female (top) and male (below) | |
Scientific classification 
| |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Lepidoptera |
| Family: | Saturniidae |
| Genus: | Automeris |
| Species: | A. io
|
| Binomial name | |
| Automeris io | |
Automeris io, the Io moth (EYE-oh) or peacock moth, is a colorful North American moth in the family Saturniidae.[2][3] The io moth is also a member of the subfamily Hemileucinae.[4] The name Io comes from Greek mythology in which Io was a mortal lover of Zeus.[5] The Io moth ranges from the southeast corner of Manitoba and in the southern extremes of Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia in Canada, and in the US it is found from Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Colorado, New Mexico, Texas, Utah, east of those states and down to the southern end of Florida.[6] The species was first described by Johan Christian Fabricius in 1775.
Adult description
.jpg)
Imagines (sexually mature, reproductive stage) have a wingspan of 2.5–3.5 inches (63–88 mm).[4][6] This species is sexually dimorphic, males having bright yellow forewings, body, and legs, while females have reddish-brown to purple forewings, body, and legs.[7][8] The males also have much bigger plumose (feathery) antennae than the females.[7] There have been instances of gynandromorphism in io moths.[9] Both males and females have one big black to bluish eyespot with some white in the center, on each hindwing.[8][10][11] Some hybridizations have resulted in variations in these hindwing eyespots.[10][11] Adults live 1–2 weeks.
.jpg)
Parasitoids
Many species of flies (Tachinidae) and wasps (Ichneumonidae and Braconidae) are known parasitoids.[7] The flies: the introduced Compsilura concinnata, Lespesia sabroskyi, Chetogena claripennis, Carcelia formosa, Sisyropa eudryae, Lespesia frenchii, and Nilea dimmocki.[12][13] The Ichneumonidae wasps: Hyposoter fugitivus and Enicospilus americanus.[7] Then the Braconidae wasps: Cotesia electrae and Cotesia hemileucae.[7]
Predators
Io moths have many predators. These include birds, small mammals, and spiders.[7][8]
Defenses
Stinging spines of caterpillar Io moths have a very painful venom that is released with the slightest touch; a condition known as erucism. There are two hypotheses regarding where this venom originates: (1) the glandular cells on the base of the branched seta or (2) from the secretory epithelial cells.[14] Contacting the seta is not life-threatening for humans, but still causes irritation to the dermal tissue, thought to result in a stinging sensation.[15][16] Both male and female adult io moths utilize their hindwing eyespots in predatory defense when the moth is sitting in the head-down position or is touched, via shaking and exposing these eyespots.[10][11][8]
Life cycle
Females lay small, white ova in the leaves of host plants, including:
- Prunus pensylvanica—pin cherry
- Salix—willow
- Abies balsamea—balsam fir
- Acer rubrum—red maple
- Amorpha fruticosa—bastard indigo
- Baptisia tinctoria—wild indigo
- Carpinus caroliniana—American hornbeam
- Celtis laevigata—sugarberry or southern hackberry
- Cephalanthus occidentalis—button-bush
- Cercis canadensis—eastern redbud
- Chamaecrista fasciculata—showy partridge pea
- Comptonia peregrina—sweetfern
- Cornus florida—flowering dogwood
- Corylus avellana—common hazel
- Erythrina herbacea, coral bean[17]
- Fagus—beech
- Fraxinus—ash
- Liquidambar styraciflua—American sweetgum
- Lythrum salicaria, introduced Purple Loosestrife[18]
- Quercus—oak
Eggs, about 48 hours after they were laid, on a bay tree leaf - Paeonia—peony
The eggs have large micropyle rosettes that turn black as the fertile eggs develop. They are usually laid in clusters of more than twenty and hatch within 8–11 days.[7][8] From the eggs, orange larvae emerge, usually eating their egg shell soon after hatching.[7] They go through five instars, each one being a little different.
The caterpillars are herbivorous and gregarious in all their instars, many times traveling in single file processions all over the food plant.[8][19][4] As the larvae develop, they will lose their orange color and will turn bright green and urticating, having many spines. The green caterpillars have two lateral stripes, the upper one being bright red and the lower one being white. These caterpillars can reach sizes of 7 cm in length.[20] When the caterpillars are ready, they spin a flimsy, valveless cocoon made from a dark, coarse silk. Some larvae will crawl to the base of the tree and make their cocoons among leaf litter on the ground, while others will use living leaves to wrap their cocoons with.[7][4] The leaves will turn brown and fall to the ground during fall, taking the cocoons with them.[7][4] There they pupate, the pupa being dark brown/black.[7] The pupae also have sexual dimorphism with the females being considerably larger than the males.[7]
Adult io moths normally emerge from their cocoons in late morning or early afternoon. The emergence of the adults moths is typically from June to July.[21] Eclosion (emergence from the cocoon) only takes a few minutes.[19] After eclosing, the moths climb and hang on plants so that their furled wings can be inflated with fluid (hemolymph) pumped from the body. This inflation process takes about twenty minutes. Adult moths are strictly nocturnal, generally flying during the peak hours of the night.[21] The females generally wait until nightfall and then extend a scent gland from the posterior region of the abdomen, in order attract males via wind-borne pheromones.[7] The males use their larger antennae to detect the pheromones. After mating, the females die following egg laying. These moths have vestigial mouthparts and do not eat in the adult stage.[5][8]
Conservation Status
The io moth is currently not listed on the IUCN Red List or the US Federal List.[19] In the eastern range of the US, the populations indicate a declining and more localized trend.[22][19]
See also
- Aglais io, a butterfly species
References
- ^ Fabricius, Johan Christian (1775). Systema entomologiae: sistens insectorvm classes, ordines, genera, species, adiectis synonymis, locis, descriptionibvs, observationibvs (PDF) (in Latin). Flensbvrgi et Lipsiae: In Officina Libraria Kortii. p. 560. doi:10.5962/bhl.title.36510. OCLC 559265566. Retrieved March 15, 2018.
- ^ "Species Automeris io - Io Moth - Hodges#7746". bugguide.net. Retrieved February 22, 2022.
- ^ Triant, Deborah A (2016). "Genome assembly and annotation of the io moth,Automeris io(Lepidoptera: Saturniidae)". 2016 International Congress of Entomology. Entomological Society of America. doi:10.1603/ice.2016.114514.
- ^ a b c d e "Io moth Automeris io (Fabricius, 1775) | Butterflies and Moths of North America". www.butterfliesandmoths.org. Retrieved February 16, 2022.
- ^ a b "Io Moth (Automeris io)". www.insectidentification.org. Retrieved February 16, 2022.
- ^ a b Eric Hossler, Dirk Elston, and David Wagner (2008). "What's Eating You? Automeris io" (PDF). Close Encounters with the Environment. 82: 21–24.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m "io moth - Automeris io (Fabricius)". entnemdept.ufl.edu. Retrieved February 11, 2022.
- ^ a b c d e f g "Io Moth". Missouri Department of Conservation. Retrieved February 23, 2022.
- ^ Sourakov, Andrei (2015). "Gynandromorphism in Automeris io (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae)". News of the Lepidopterists' Society. 57: 118–129 – via Research Gate.
- ^ a b c Sourakov, Andrei (September 26, 2017). "Giving eyespots a shiner: Pharmacologic manipulation of the Io moth wing pattern". F1000Research. 6: 1319. doi:10.12688/f1000research.12258.2. ISSN 2046-1402. PMC 5629545. PMID 29057069.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - ^ a b c Stevens, Martin (November 2005). "The role of eyespots as anti-predator mechanisms, principally demonstrated in the Lepidoptera". Biological Reviews. 80 (4): 573–588. doi:10.1017/S1464793105006810. ISSN 1469-185X. PMID 16221330. S2CID 24868603.
- ^ Meigen, Johann Wilhelm (1818). Systematische Beschreibung der bekannten europäischen zweiflugeligen Insekten / von Johann Wilhelm Meigen. s.l.: s.n. doi:10.5962/bhl.title.13731.
- ^ O’Hara, James E.; Wood, D. Monty (December 1998). "Tachinidae (Diptera): Nomenclatural Review and Changes, Primarily for America North of Mexico". The Canadian Entomologist. 130 (6): 751–774. doi:10.4039/ent130751-6. ISSN 0008-347X.
- ^ Ellis, Elston, Hossler, Cowper, and Rapini (2021). "What's Eating You? Caterpillars" (PDF). Close Encounters with the Environment. 108: 346–351.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Villas-Boasa, Alvarez-Floresb, Chudzinski-Tavassib, and Tambourgi (2016). "Envenomation by Caterpillars". Clinical Toxinology in Asia Pacific and Africa. 57: 1–17.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ JONES, DAVID L.; MILLER, JOSEPH H. (January 1, 1959). "Pathology of the Dermatitis Produced by the Urticating Caterpillar, Automeris Io". A.M.A. Archives of Dermatology. 79 (1): 81–85. doi:10.1001/archderm.1959.01560130083009. ISSN 0096-5359. PMID 13605279.
- ^ "Access Suspended". bioone.org. doi:10.18473/lepi.v67i4.a6. S2CID 87172312. Retrieved February 16, 2022.
- ^ Barbour, James; Kiviat, Erik (January 10, 2018). "Introduced Purple Loosestrife as Host of Native Saturniidae (Lepidoptera)". The Great Lakes Entomologist. 30 (2). ISSN 0090-0222.
- ^ a b c d Miner, Angela. "Automeris io". Animal Diversity Web. Retrieved February 13, 2022.
- ^ "Species Automeris io - Io Moth - Hodges#7746". bugguide.net. Retrieved February 16, 2022.
- ^ a b "Adult and Larva of Moths of Pennsylvania: Moths and Butterflies" (PDF). WRCF Poster. Retrieved February 16, 2022.
- ^ Wagner, David (2012). "Conservation Matters: Moth Decline in the Northeastern United States" (PDF). News of the Lepidopterists' Society. 54: 52–55.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Automeris io.
- Site with a description and pictures
- Io moth on the UF / IFAS Featured Creatures Web site