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The concept of PTED as a distinct clinical disorder has been first described by the German psychiatrist and psychologist [[Michael Linden]] in 2003,<ref name="Linden2003">{{Cite journal | last1 = Linden | first1 = M. | s2cid = 19723598 | title = Posttraumatic embitterment disorder. | journal = Psychother Psychosom | volume = 72 | issue = 4 | pages = 195–202 | doi = 10.1159/000070783 | pmid = 12792124 | year = 2003 }}</ref> who remains its most involved researcher. Even though it has been backed up by empirical research in the past years, it remains disputed as to whether embitterment should be included among psychological disorders.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Linden |first=Michael |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/971201601 |title=Verbitterung und Posttraumatische Verbitterungsstörung |date=2017 |others=Hogrefe Verlag |isbn=978-3-8017-2822-9 |edition=1. Auflage |location=Göttingen |oclc=971201601}}</ref><ref name="Linden2007">{{Cite journal | last1 = Linden | first1 = M. | last2 = Rotter | first2 = M. | last3 = Baumann | first3 = K. | last4 = Lieberei | first4 = B. |title = Posttraumatic embitterment disorder. Definition, Evidence, Diagnosis, Treatment. | journal = Hogrefe & Huber }}</ref><ref name="Linden&Maercker2011">{{Cite journal | last1 = Linden | first1 = M. | last2 = Maercker | first2 = A. | title = Embitterment. Societal, psychological, and clinical perspectives | publisher = Springer }}</ref><ref name="Linden2011">{{Cite journal | last1 = Linden | first1 = M. | last2 = Baumann | first2 = K. | last3 = Lieberei | first3 =B. | last4 = Lorenz | first4 = C. | last5 = Rotter | first5 = M. | s2cid = 24773913 | title = Treatment of posttraumatic embitterment disorder with cognitive behaviour therapy based on wisdom psychology and hedonia strategies | journal = Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics | volume = 80 | issue = 4 | pages = 199–205 | pmid = 21494061 | year = 2011 | doi = 10.1159/000321580 }}</ref><ref name="Linden&Rutkowsky2013">{{Cite book | last1 = Linden | first1 = M. | last2 = Rutkowsky | first2 = K. |title = Hurting memories and beneficial forgetting. Posttraumatic stress disorders, biographical developments, and social conflicts |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-12-398393-0| date = 2013-01-29 }}</ref><ref name="Znoj et al.,2016">{{Cite journal | last1 = Znoj | first1 = H.J. | last2 = Abegglen | first2 = S. | last3 = Buchkremer | first3 = U. | last4 = Linden | first4 = M. |title = The embittered mind: Dimensions of embitterment and validation of the concept.| journal = Journal of Individual Differences | volume = 37 | issue = 4 | pages = 213–222 | doi = 10.1027/1614-0001/a000208 }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Sartorius |first=Norman |title=Should embitterment be included among mental disorders? |date=2011 |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-211-99741-3_21 |work=Embitterment |pages=248–254 |editor-last=Linden |editor-first=Michael |place=Vienna |publisher=Springer Vienna |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-211-99741-3_21 |isbn=978-3-211-99740-6 |access-date=2022-05-25 |editor2-last=Maercker |editor2-first=Andreas}}</ref> Therefore, PTED currently does not hold its own category in the [[ICD-10]] but is categorized under F43.8 “Other reactions to severe stress”. It cannot be categorized as an [[adjustment disorder]] under F43.2, since “ordinary” adjustment disorders normally subside within six months, while PTED is much more likely to become chronical and last for much longer. A condition similar to PTED has already been described by [[Emil Kraepelin]] as early as 1915 by the name [[querulous paranoia]] as a form of traumatic neuroses, explicitly demarcating it from [[Personality disorder|personality disorders]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kraepelin |first=Emil |url=http://archive.org/details/b21295967_0001 |title=Psychiatrie [electronic resource] : ein Lehrbuch für Studierende und Ärzte |last2=Mayer-Gross |first2=Willy |last3=King's College London |date=1909 |publisher=Leipzig : Johann Ambrosius Barth |others=Foyle Special Collections Library King's College London}}</ref>
The concept of PTED as a distinct clinical disorder has been first described by the German psychiatrist and psychologist [[Michael Linden]] in 2003,<ref name="Linden2003">{{Cite journal | last1 = Linden | first1 = M. | s2cid = 19723598 | title = Posttraumatic embitterment disorder. | journal = Psychother Psychosom | volume = 72 | issue = 4 | pages = 195–202 | doi = 10.1159/000070783 | pmid = 12792124 | year = 2003 }}</ref> who remains its most involved researcher. Even though it has been backed up by empirical research in the past years, it remains disputed as to whether embitterment should be included among psychological disorders.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Linden |first=Michael |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/971201601 |title=Verbitterung und Posttraumatische Verbitterungsstörung |date=2017 |others=Hogrefe Verlag |isbn=978-3-8017-2822-9 |edition=1. Auflage |location=Göttingen |oclc=971201601}}</ref><ref name="Linden2007">{{Cite journal | last1 = Linden | first1 = M. | last2 = Rotter | first2 = M. | last3 = Baumann | first3 = K. | last4 = Lieberei | first4 = B. |title = Posttraumatic embitterment disorder. Definition, Evidence, Diagnosis, Treatment. | journal = Hogrefe & Huber }}</ref><ref name="Linden&Maercker2011">{{Cite journal | last1 = Linden | first1 = M. | last2 = Maercker | first2 = A. | title = Embitterment. Societal, psychological, and clinical perspectives | publisher = Springer }}</ref><ref name="Linden2011">{{Cite journal | last1 = Linden | first1 = M. | last2 = Baumann | first2 = K. | last3 = Lieberei | first3 =B. | last4 = Lorenz | first4 = C. | last5 = Rotter | first5 = M. | s2cid = 24773913 | title = Treatment of posttraumatic embitterment disorder with cognitive behaviour therapy based on wisdom psychology and hedonia strategies | journal = Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics | volume = 80 | issue = 4 | pages = 199–205 | pmid = 21494061 | year = 2011 | doi = 10.1159/000321580 }}</ref><ref name="Linden&Rutkowsky2013">{{Cite book | last1 = Linden | first1 = M. | last2 = Rutkowsky | first2 = K. |title = Hurting memories and beneficial forgetting. Posttraumatic stress disorders, biographical developments, and social conflicts |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-12-398393-0| date = 2013-01-29 }}</ref><ref name="Znoj et al.,2016">{{Cite journal | last1 = Znoj | first1 = H.J. | last2 = Abegglen | first2 = S. | last3 = Buchkremer | first3 = U. | last4 = Linden | first4 = M. |title = The embittered mind: Dimensions of embitterment and validation of the concept.| journal = Journal of Individual Differences | volume = 37 | issue = 4 | pages = 213–222 | doi = 10.1027/1614-0001/a000208 }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Sartorius |first=Norman |title=Should embitterment be included among mental disorders? |date=2011 |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-211-99741-3_21 |work=Embitterment |pages=248–254 |editor-last=Linden |editor-first=Michael |place=Vienna |publisher=Springer Vienna |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-211-99741-3_21 |isbn=978-3-211-99740-6 |access-date=2022-05-25 |editor2-last=Maercker |editor2-first=Andreas}}</ref> Therefore, PTED currently does not hold its own category in the [[ICD-10]] but is categorized under F43.8 “Other reactions to severe stress”. It cannot be categorized as an [[adjustment disorder]] under F43.2, since “ordinary” adjustment disorders normally subside within six months, while PTED is much more likely to become chronical and last for much longer. A condition similar to PTED has already been described by [[Emil Kraepelin]] as early as 1915 by the name [[querulous paranoia]] as a form of traumatic neuroses, explicitly demarcating it from [[Personality disorder|personality disorders]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kraepelin |first=Emil |url=http://archive.org/details/b21295967_0001 |title=Psychiatrie [electronic resource] : ein Lehrbuch für Studierende und Ärzte |last2=Mayer-Gross |first2=Willy |last3=King's College London |date=1909 |publisher=Leipzig : Johann Ambrosius Barth |others=Foyle Special Collections Library King's College London}}</ref>

== Bitterness and Embitterment ==
Bitterness (also called [[resentment]]) is defined as a basic human reaction in response to experiences of [[injustice]], [[betrayal]], or [[humiliation]], comprised of [[Emotion|emotions]] such as [[anger]], wrath, [[hostility]], [[disappointment]], [[disgust]], and [[shame]]. However, while “ordinary” bitterness is just a transient emotion, which will eventually fade away, embitterment is described as a much more prolonged state of bitterness, which will not easily subside and can severely impair the quality of life of those affected and of their environment. Typically, embitterment will flare up time and time again upon recalling the triggering incident.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |last=Rotter |first=Max |title=Embitterment and personality disorder |date=2011 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-211-99741-3_14 |work=Embitterment: Societal, psychological, and clinical perspectives |pages=177–186 |editor-last=Linden |editor-first=Michael |place=Vienna |publisher=Springer |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-211-99741-3_14 |isbn=978-3-211-99741-3 |access-date=2022-05-26 |editor2-last=Maercker |editor2-first=Andreas}}</ref><ref name="Alexander1966">{{Cite journal | last1 = Alexander | first1 = J. | title = The psychology of bitterness. | journal = International Journal of Psycho-Analysis | volume = 41 | pages = 514–520 | pmid = 13682342 | year = 1960 }}</ref><ref name="Linden&Maercker2011" />


== Prevelance ==
== Prevelance ==
Preliminary data suggest a prevalence of about 2–3% in the general population. Increased prevalence rates are observed when larger groups of people are subject to social upheaval. Accordingly, Linden described this condition for the first time after the German reunification.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Linden |first=Michael |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/999757230 |title=Verbitterung und Posttraumatische Verbitterungsstörung |date=2017 |publisher=Hogrefe |isbn=978-3-8017-2822-9 |edition=1. Auflage |location=Göttingen |pages=19 - 21 |oclc=999757230}}</ref>
Preliminary data suggest a prevalence of about 2–3% in the general population. Increased prevalence rates are observed when larger groups of people are subject to social upheaval. Accordingly, Linden described this condition for the first time after the German reunification.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Linden |first=Michael |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/999757230 |title=Verbitterung und Posttraumatische Verbitterungsstörung |date=2017 |publisher=Hogrefe |isbn=978-3-8017-2822-9 |edition=1. Auflage |location=Göttingen |pages=19 - 21 |oclc=999757230}}</ref>

== Forms of embitterment ==
Embitterment is a persistent negative feeling in reaction to common negative life events,<ref name="Linden&Maercker2011"/><ref name="Alexander1966">{{Cite journal | last1 = Alexander | first1 = J. | title = The psychology of bitterness. | journal = International Journal of Psycho-Analysis | volume = 41 | pages = 514–520 | pmid = 13682342 | year = 1960 }}</ref> and is a reactive [[emotion]] towards injustice, insult or breach of trust. Embitterment is a gnawing feeling and has the tendency not to stop. In many cases, embitterment fades away, but in others, it comes up again and again when the occasion is recalled. With greater intensity, it can limit a person's whole life and their environment with severe impairment.


== Causes ==
== Causes ==
Line 65: Line 65:
** cardinal emotion is recurring or persisting fear; embitterment does not occur
** cardinal emotion is recurring or persisting fear; embitterment does not occur
* [[Major depressive disorder]]:
* [[Major depressive disorder]]:
** very common misdiagnosis due to several symptomatic similarities (e. g. depressed mood, avolition, suicidality, absent-mindedness)
** very common misdiagnosis due to several symptomatic similarities (e. g. depressed mood, avolition, suicidality, [[absent-mindedness]])
** contrary to PTED no direct temporal connection to debilitating events, no singular stressor
** contrary to PTED no direct temporal connection to debilitating events, no singular stressor
** no [[anhedonia]] in PTED patients
** no [[anhedonia]] in PTED patients
Line 76: Line 76:
** Lifelong development, no immediate connection to a singular event
** Lifelong development, no immediate connection to a singular event
** PTED completely reversible by therapy, effects of PDs only mitigable
** PTED completely reversible by therapy, effects of PDs only mitigable
** '''However:''' development of PTED can be facilitated by existing PDs
** '''However:''' development of PTED might be facilitated by existing PDs<ref name=":0" />
* [[Paranoia]], [[Delusion|Delusions]], [[Schizotypal personality disorder|Schizotypal disorder]], [[Schizophrenia]], [[Querulant|Querulant delusion]]
* [[Paranoia]], [[Delusion|Delusions]], [[Schizotypal personality disorder|Schizotypal disorder]], [[Schizophrenia]], [[Querulant|Querulant delusion]], [[Moral injury]]


== Psychotherapy ==
== Psychotherapy ==

Revision as of 11:21, 26 May 2022

Post-traumatic embitterment disorder
SpecialtyPsychology

Posttraumatic Embitterment Disorder (PTED) is defined as a pathological reaction to a negative life event, which those affected experienced as a grave insult, humiliation, betrayal, or injustice. Prevalent emotions of PTED are embitterment, anger, fury, and hatred, especially against the triggering stressor, often accompanied by fantasies of revenge. The disorder commences immediately and without time delay at the moment of the triggering event. If left untreated, the prognosis of PTED presents as rather unfavorable, since patients find themselves trapped in a vicious circle of strong negative emotions constantly intensifying one another and eventually leading into a self-destructive downward spiral. People affected by PTED are more likely to put fantasies of revenge into action, making them a serious threat to the stressor.

The concept of PTED as a distinct clinical disorder has been first described by the German psychiatrist and psychologist Michael Linden in 2003,[1] who remains its most involved researcher. Even though it has been backed up by empirical research in the past years, it remains disputed as to whether embitterment should be included among psychological disorders.[2][3][4][5][6][7][8] Therefore, PTED currently does not hold its own category in the ICD-10 but is categorized under F43.8 “Other reactions to severe stress”. It cannot be categorized as an adjustment disorder under F43.2, since “ordinary” adjustment disorders normally subside within six months, while PTED is much more likely to become chronical and last for much longer. A condition similar to PTED has already been described by Emil Kraepelin as early as 1915 by the name querulous paranoia as a form of traumatic neuroses, explicitly demarcating it from personality disorders.[9]

Bitterness and Embitterment

Bitterness (also called resentment) is defined as a basic human reaction in response to experiences of injustice, betrayal, or humiliation, comprised of emotions such as anger, wrath, hostility, disappointment, disgust, and shame. However, while “ordinary” bitterness is just a transient emotion, which will eventually fade away, embitterment is described as a much more prolonged state of bitterness, which will not easily subside and can severely impair the quality of life of those affected and of their environment. Typically, embitterment will flare up time and time again upon recalling the triggering incident.[10][11][4]

Prevelance

Preliminary data suggest a prevalence of about 2–3% in the general population. Increased prevalence rates are observed when larger groups of people are subject to social upheaval. Accordingly, Linden described this condition for the first time after the German reunification.[12]

Causes

Severe reactions of embitterment can be triggered if someone’s core beliefs are being heavily violated. In psychology, core beliefs are defined as mindsets, opinions and, values, which define an individual. They function as a cognitive reference system which structures the perception of the world, of oneself, of others, of what is important or not, what is right or wrong, and what is necessary to be done, and can comprise both negative and positive feelings. They are of great individual and social importance and can be handed down transgenerational, thereby shaping entire cultures. Core beliefs are not necessarily true in view of reality, but they feel true to an individual, no matter what they comprise. Therefore, information contradicting them is commonly ignored, making them difficult to change or challenge.[13]

Since core beliefs are a central aspect of an individual's identity, they are especially vulnerable to insults, humiliations, betrayal, and injustice, which are psychologically perceived as aggressions. PTED can be triggered if a violation of a core belief, especially a positive one, is too severe to be ignored and to be properly processed, and if there is no way for those affected to fight back and defend their beliefs, leaving them in a state of helplessness, resignation and eventually embitterment. As core beliefs are unique for every individual, what might seem like a triviality or just a minor nuisance to one person, can cause an existential crisis in another one, especially if they lack the psychological resilience to overcome the crisis.

Signs and symptoms

The following diagnostic criteria characterize posttraumatic embitterment disorder:[14]

  • Clinically significant emotional symptoms or behavioral problems, starting immediately after exactly one singular negative, stressful life event, which – from the outside – appears to be no more than an everyday occurrence (i. e. nothing out of the ordinary like road accidents, robberies, or war)
  • The patient is aware of the triggering event and recognizes it as the cause of the disorder
  • The traumatic stress is experienced in the following ways:
    • The debilitating event was experienced as injustice, insult, humiliation, or betrayal
    • The patient reacts with emotional arousal when being reminded of the stressor
    • The reaction includes emotions like embitterment, anger, fury, hatred, and helplessness
  • Further symptoms:
    • Recurring intrusive thoughts of the triggering event
    • a dysphoric-aggressive-depressive mood
    • Avolition
    • unspecific psychosomatic symptoms
    • phobic avoidance of persons or places related to the event
    • fantasies of revenge and aggressive thoughts towards the stressor, sometimes including fantasies of suicide, murder, or murder-suicide
    • querulous persistence in the fight for the restoration of justice
  • The patient did not present any signs of a psychological disorder prior to the triggering event, which could explain the abnormal reaction
  • The symptoms have been persisting for at least six months since the moment of the triggering event

PTED does not present as “traumatic” in view of its preceding trigger, but because of its chronological course of events: Minutes prior to the triggering event, those affected were perfectly healthy, minutes later they are ill and severely impaired. In this regard PTED resembles PTSD. However, the nature of the triggering event in PTED has no influence on the nature of the ensuing symptoms.

PTED will not subside on its own but rather intensify over time, leading patients into a self-destructive downward spiral of negative emotions constantly reinforcing one another. If left untreated, PTED is very likely to eventually lead those affected into implementing their aggressions towards the stressor.

Diagnosis

BEI

The Berner Embitterment-Inventory (BEI) (Znoj, 2008; 2011)[full citation needed] measures emotional embitterment, performance-related embitterment, pessimism/hopelessness, and misanthropy/aggression.

PTED scale

The PTED scale is a 19 item self-rating questionnaire and can be used to identify reactive embitterment and assess the severity of PTED.[15] Answers are given on a five-point Likert scale. An average score of 2.5 identifies with a clinically relevant degree of embitterment response, though it does not officially confirm a diagnosis. Higher values are only indications of critical embitterment. The diagnosis of PTED is only possible through a detailed clinical assessment or standardized diagnostic interview.

Standardized diagnostic interview

The standardized diagnostic interview of PTED[14] asks for core criteria of PTED. In the diagnostic interview, it must be clarified what the patient means when they describe their experiences and feelings.

Differential Diagnoses

  • Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD):
    • triggered by one singular or several potentially life-threatening, uncommon events causing extreme fear and panic (e. g. road accidents, robberies, war)
    • cardinal emotion is recurring or persisting fear; embitterment does not occur
  • Major depressive disorder:
    • very common misdiagnosis due to several symptomatic similarities (e. g. depressed mood, avolition, suicidality, absent-mindedness)
    • contrary to PTED no direct temporal connection to debilitating events, no singular stressor
    • no anhedonia in PTED patients
  • Adjustment disorder:
    • normally subsides within six months after the triggering event
    • can be caused by a number of events, not necessarily by insults, betrayal, humiliation or injustice
  • Phobia:
    • Avoidance behavior caused by fear, not by embitterment
  • Personality disorders:
    • Lifelong development, no immediate connection to a singular event
    • PTED completely reversible by therapy, effects of PDs only mitigable
    • However: development of PTED might be facilitated by existing PDs[10]
  • Paranoia, Delusions, Schizotypal disorder, Schizophrenia, Querulant delusion, Moral injury

Psychotherapy

The treatment of posttraumatic bitterness is complicated by the typical resignative-aggressive-defensive attitude of the patient, which is also directed against therapeutic offers. One approach of treatment is wisdom therapy developed by Linden, a form of cognitive-behavioral therapy that aims to empower the patient to distance themselves from the critical life event and build up new life perspectives.[16][17] One uses the usual cognitive strategies of attitude change and problem-solving are used, such as:

  • behavior therapeutic methods like behavioral analysis and cognitive rehearsal
  • analysis of automatic thoughts and schemata
  • reframing or cognitive reattribution
  • exposure treatments
  • increase of activities
  • rebuilding of social contacts
  • promotion of self-effectiveness

A special treatment module aims at the training of wisdom competencies, which means promoting the following abilities:[citation needed]

  • changing perspectives
  • empathy
  • perception and acceptance of emotions
  • emotional balance and sense of humour
  • contextualism
  • long-term orientation
  • value relativism
  • tolerance of uncertainty
  • self-distance and self-relativization

Methodically, the method of "insolvable problems" is used. In this procedure, fictitious serious and insolvable conflict situations are presented, which allow the patients to train wisdom capacities and transfer them to their own situation (so-called "learning transfer.")[16][18]

Criticism

The problem of embitterment reactions and also the posttraumatic embitterment disorder increasingly gain international attention.[19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28] Nevertheless, there are some unsolved problems. Further research is needed to differentiate between PTED and other mental disorders.[29] In 2014 science journalist Jörg Blech mentioned this disorder in his book Die Psychofalle - Wie die Seelenindustrie uns zu Patienten macht ("The Psycho Trap: How the Soul Industry Makes Us Patients").[30] It is discussed whether the introduction of PTED may make a problem out of everyday problems. However, according to the available studies, the primary problem is not the differentiation between healthy and ill persons, since patients with PTED have regularly been given a variety of diagnoses. It is about the differential diagnostic differentiation of a special type of disorder, as a precondition for a goal-oriented therapy.

Bibliography

Aynur Görmez, Rümeysa Yeni Elbay, Hasan Turan Karatepe (2020): Post-traumatic embitterment symptoms among woman victims of February 28th post-modern coup of Turkey after two decades: A comparative cross-sectional study, International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 10.1177/0020764020946346, (002076402094634).

B. Muschalla, H. Rau, G. D. Willmund, C. Knaevelsrud (2018): Work disability in soldiers with posttraumatic stress disorder, posttraumatic embitterment disorder, and not-event-related common mental disorders. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 10(1), https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000293, pp. 30-35.

Chloe J. Brennan, Michael T. McKay, Jon C. Cole. (2022): Morally injurious events and post-traumatic embitterment disorder in UK health and social care professionals during COVID-19: a cross-sectional web survey. BMJ Open 12:5, pp. e054062.

G. G. Simutkin. (2018) Anger attacks and «anger disorders»: clinical relevance, problem of classification, comorbidity and therapy (review). V.M. BEKHTEREV REVIEW OF PSYCHIATRY AND MEDICAL PSYCHOLOGY:3, pp. 10-21.

Harald Ege (2008): Über den Zusammenhang zwischen Mobbing/ Arbeitsplatzkonflikten und dem posttraumatischen Verbitterungssyndrom (PTED): Eine empirische italienische Studie. Psychosomatik und Konsiliarpsychiatrie, 2:4, pp. 244-247.

Işıl Karatuna & Sibel Gök (2014): A Study Analyzing the Association between Post-Traumatic Embitterment Disorder and Workplace Bullying, Journal of Workplace Behavioral Health, 29:2, DOI: 10.1080/15555240.2014.898569, pp. 127-142.

J. Spaaij, M. Schick, R. A. Bryant, et al. (2021): An exploratory study of embitterment in traumatized refugees. BMC Psychol 9, 96. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-021-00599-2.

Jeonghoon Shin, Myoungsoon You (2022): Embitterment among the unemployed: A multiple mediation model of belief in a just world, Work, 10.3233/WOR-205228, pp. 1-10.

Martin Dobricki, Andreas Maercker (2010): (Post-traumatic) embitterment disorder: Critical evaluation of its stressor criterion and a proposed revised classification, Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 64:3, DOI: 10.3109/08039480903398185, pp. 147-152.

Michael Linden (2006): Posttraumatic Embitterment Disorder: Definition, Evidence, Diagnosis, Treatment, Ashland: Hogrefe Publishing GmbH, ISBN 978-1-61676-344-2. OCLC 1012347668.

Michael Linden (2013): Hurting Memories and Intrusions in Posttraumatic Embitterment Disorders (PTED) as Compared to Posttraumatic Stress Disorders (PTSD). Hurting Memories and Beneficial Forgetting, pp. 83-92.

Michael Linden (2017). Verbitterung und Posttraumatische Verbitterungsstörung. Hogrefe Verlag (1. Auflage ed.). Göttingen. ISBN 978-3-8017-2822-9. OCLC 971201601.

Michael Linden (2020): Querulant delusion and post-traumatic embitterment disorder, International Review of Psychiatry, 32:5-6, DOI: 10.1080/09540261.2020.1747410, pp. 396-402.

Michael Linden, Andreas Maercker (2011): Embitterment: societal, psychological, and clinical perspectives. Wien: Springer. ISBN 978-3-211-99741-3. OCLC 710113250.

Michael Linden, Christopher Patrick Arnold (2020): Embitterment and Posttraumatic Embitterment Disorder (PTED): An Old, Frequent, and Still Underrecognized Problem, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 10.1159/000511468, pp. 1-8.

Michael Linden, Isabel Noack (2018): Suicidal and Aggressive Ideation Associated with Feelings of Embitterment. Psychopathology 51:4, pp. 245-251.

Michael Linden, Kai Baumann, Barbara Lieberei, C. Lorenz , Max Rotter (2011): Treatment of Posttraumatic Embitterment Disorder with Cognitive Behaviour Therapy Based on Wisdom Psychology and Hedonia Strategies. Psychother Psychosom, 80, doi: 10.1159/000321580, pp. 199-205

Michael Linden, Kai Baumann, Max Rotter, Barbara Schippan (2007): The Psychopathology of Posttraumatic Embitterment Disorders, Psychopathology, 40, doi: 10.1159/000100005, pp. 159-165.

Michael Linden, Kai Baumann, Max Rotter, Barbara Schippan (2008): Posttraumatic Embitterment Disorder in Comparison to Other Mental Disorders. Psychother Psychosom, 77, doi: 10.1159/000110060, pp. 50-56.

Michael Linden, Kai Baumann, Max Rotter, Barbara Schippan (2008): Diagnostic criteria and the standardized diagnostic interview for posttraumatic embitterment disorder (PTED), International Journal of Psychiatry in Clinical Practice, 12:2, DOI: 10.1080/13651500701580478, pp. 93-96

Michael Linden, Kai Baumann, Max Rotter, Barbara Schippan (2009): The post-traumatic embitterment disorder Self-Rating Scale (PTED Scale). Clin. Psychol. Psychother, 16, https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.610, pp. 139-147.

Michael Linden, Krzysztof Rutkowski (2013): Hurting Memories and Beneficial Forgetting: Posttraumatic Stress Disorders, Biographical Developments, and Social Conflicts. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science. ISBN 978-0-12-398404-3. OCLC 826854556.

Michael Linden, Max Rotter (2018): Spectrum of embitterment manifestations. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 10(1),  https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000307, pp. 1-6.

Myoungsoon You, Youngkee Ju (2020): Modeling embitterment dynamics: The influence of negative life events and social support mediated by belief in a just world, Journal of Affective Disorders, 10.1016/j.jad.2020.05.108.

Rami Bou Khalil, Sebastien Guillaume (2020): Is post-traumatic embitterment disorder a yet unknown comorbidity of anorexia nervosa?, Medical Hypotheses, Volume 140, 109670, ISSN 0306-9877, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2020.109670. (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306987720302401)

T. Sensky (2010): Chronic Embitterment and Organisational Justice. Psychother Psychosom, 79,  doi: 10.1159/000270914, pp.65-72.

Yuting Gao, Xiaoyan Wang, Liangliang Tan, Ting Yang, Linhua Shi, Huanxin Chen, Wenhao Jiang, Yonggui Yuan (2022): Characteristics of post‐traumatic embitterment disorder of in patients in a general hospital in China, Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 10.1002/cpp.2727.

References

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