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Page additions created for Student Project for Archaeology of Africa - Added section on Geology, including geologic context, stratigraphy, geochronology, and paleoenvironment. Added infobox to summarize geologic information. Added section on Archaeology, with subsection on Lithics. Ochre statement from the previous article should be expanded into its own subsection.
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{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2014}}


{{Infobox rockunit|name=Kapthurin Formation|period=Quaternary|age=Middle Pleistocene, {{geological range|0.61|0.23| PS = ''(See [[Kapthurin Formation#geochronology | geochronology]])''}}|image=|imagesize=|caption=|type=[[Geological formation]]|prilithology=Silt, gravel|otherlithology=Basalt, tuff, trachyte, conglomerate, tufa|unitof=[[Tugen Hills | Tugen Hills Sequence]]|subunits=''See [[Kapthurin Formation#stratigraphy | stratigraphy]]''|underlies=Kokwob (Loboi) Formation|overlies=Chemeron Formation|thickness=~125 m|map={{Location map| Kenya
The '''Kapthurin Formation''' is a [[basalt]] outcrop in [[Kenya]] near [[Lake Bogoria]] and [[Lake Baringo]].
|caption = Kapthurin Formation outcrop W of Lake Baringo
|lat_deg = 0.31
|lon_deg = 35.58
}}|map_caption=<!----Location---->|location=[[Great Rift Valley, Kenya]]|coordinates={{coord|0.31|N|35.58|E}}|region=|country=|extent=~150 km<sup>2</sup>}}


The '''Kapthurin [[Stratigraphic unit|Formation]]''' is a series of [[Middle Pleistocene]] sediments associated with the [[East African Rift|East African Rift Valley]]. Part of the [[East African Rift System]], it is also an important [[archaeological site]] in the study of early humans who occupied the area and left stone tools and animal bones behind. It [[Outcrop|outcrops]] in [[Kenya]] west of [[Lake Bogoria]] and northwest of [[Lake Baringo]] in the [[Great Rift Valley, Kenya|Kenya Rift Valley]], exposed on the surface in a 150 km<sup>2</sup> area.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Tryon |first=Christian A. |last2=McBrearty |first2=Sally |date=10 March 2006 |title=Tephrostratigraphy of the Bedded Tuff Member (Kapthurin Formation, Kenya) and the nature of archaeological change in the later middle Pleistocene |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0033589400027642/type/journal_article |journal=Quaternary Research |language=en |volume=65 |issue=3 |pages=492–507 |doi=10.1016/j.yqres.2006.01.008 |issn=0033-5894}}</ref> It also outcrops in portions of the [[Tugen Hills]] farther east.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Hill |first=A. |last2=Curtis |first2=G. |last3=Drake |first3=R. |date=1986 |title=Sedimentary stratigraphy of the Tugen Hills, Baringo, Kenya |url=https://www.lyellcollection.org/doi/10.1144/GSL.SP.1986.025.01.23 |journal=Geological Society, London, Special Publications |language=en |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=285–295 |doi=10.1144/GSL.SP.1986.025.01.23 |issn=0305-8719}}</ref> The ~125 meters of sediment that comprises the Kapthurin formation represents more than 600,000 years of [[Deposition (geology)|depositional]] history.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last=Cornelissen |first=E. |last2=Boven |first2=A. |last3=Dabi |first3=A. |last4=Hus |first4=J. |last5=Yong |first5=K. Ju |last6=Keppens |first6=E. |last7=Langohr |first7=R. |last8=Moeyersons |first8=J. |last9=Pasteels |first9=P. |last10=Pieters |first10=M. |last11=Uytterschaut |first11=H. |last12=Van Noten |first12=F. |last13=Workineh |first13=H. |date=1990 |title=The Kapthurin Formation revisited |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf01116871 |journal=African Archaeological Review |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=23–75 |doi=10.1007/bf01116871 |issn=0263-0338}}</ref> [[Clastic rock|Clastic sediments]], [[Tuff|tuffs]], and [[Carbonate platform|carbonate]] beds, in the Kapthurin give information on past river and lake environments. Additionally, [[Interbedding|intercalated]] tuffs and [[Extrusive rock|extrusive igneous rocks]] associated with Rift Valley volcanic activity have allowed for multiple [[Argon–argon dating|Argon-Argon dating]] studies. The high resolution dating enables archaeological studies regarding changing [[Hominidae|hominin]] behavior. The Kapthurin Formation has been used to study the [[Acheulean|Acheulian]]-[[Middle Stone Age]] transition.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tryon |first=Christian A. |date=April 2006 |title=“Early” Middle Stone Age Lithic Technology of the Kapthurin Formation (Kenya) |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/503066 |journal=Current Anthropology |volume=47 |issue=2 |pages=367–375 |doi=10.1086/503066 |issn=0011-3204}}</ref>
Part of the [[East African Rift System]], it is also an important [[archaeological site]] in the study of early humans who occupied the area and left [[Acheulean]] stone tools and animal bones behind.


== Geology ==
The Kapthurin Formation has been used to study the Acheulian-Middle Stone Age transition.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tryon |first=Christian A. |date=April 2006|title=“Early” Middle Stone Age Lithic Technology of the Kapthurin Formation (Kenya) |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/503066 |journal=Current Anthropology |volume=47 |issue=2 |pages=367–375 |doi=10.1086/503066 |issn=0011-3204}}</ref>


=== Geologic Context ===
⚫
[[Argon–argon dating]] of volcanic ash overlying [[ochre]] fragments found there has dated what may represent some of the earliest human aesthetic sensibility to 285,000 years ago. The ochre fragments must have been brought to the site by human agency and may have been used as body adornment.{{Citation needed|date=March 2023}}
The Kapthurin is on the floor of the basin of a [[half-graben]] that forms the Kenya Rift. This is one of two half-grabens in the Eastern portion of the East Africa Rift Valley. Because of nearby North-South striking [[Normal fault|normal faults]] that form this half-graben, the Kapthurin and other sedimentary formations are on a fault block tiled to the West. The formation contains [[Lacustrine deposits|lacustrine]], [[Fluvial processes|fluvial]], and volcanic rocks (specifically [[Basalt|basalts]] and [[Trachyte|trachytes]]). Generally, clastic sediments dominate the formation, but evidence of volcanic activity from tuffs and rocks representing lava flows are found throughout.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":5" /><ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last=Tryon |first=Christian A. |last2=McBrearty |first2=Sally |date=25 June 2001 |title=Tephrostratigraphy and the Acheulian to Middle Stone Age transition in the Kapthurin Formation, Kenya |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0047248401905135 |journal=Journal of Human Evolution |language=en |volume=42 |issue=1-2 |pages=211–235 |doi=10.1006/jhev.2001.0513}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite web |title=The origins of the Middle Stone Age and Levallois technology: Kapthurin Formation, Lake Baringo, Kenya |url=https://scholar.harvard.edu/catryon/kapthurin-formation-lake-baringo-kenya |access-date=2023-04-02 |website=scholar.harvard.edu |language=en}}</ref>

=== Stratigraphy ===
The Kapthurin overlies the Chemeron Formation, dated to roughly 1.57 million years ago, [[Unconformity|unconformably]]. The bulk Kapthurin formation has been dated to the Middle Pleistocene based on fossil evidence.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":7" /> An idealized [[Stratigraphy|stratigraphic]] characterization divides the formation into 5 [[Stratigraphic unit|members]], listed here in descending order with their geologic abbreviations and intercalated tuffs and lava flows (also in descending order).<ref name=":1" /><blockquote>K5) Upper Silts and Gravels

K4) The Bedded Tuff

K3) Middle Silts and Gravels

* Gray Tuff
* Upper Kasurein Basalt

K2) [[Pumice]] Tuff

K1) Lower Silts and Gravels

* Lower Kasurein Basalt
</blockquote>The Kokwob formation (also called the Loboi Formation) overlies the Kapthurin unconformably, with sediments being of [[Holocene]] or [[Late Pleistocene]] Age. These sediments represent the present day erosional activity and deposition. Stratigraphically, a major faulting episode separates the Kapthurin and Kokwob.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Young |first=J. a. T. |last2=Renaut |first2=R. W. |date=1979 |title=A radiocarbon date from Lake Bogoria, Kenya Rift Valley |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/278243a0 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=278 |issue=5701 |pages=243–245 |doi=10.1038/278243a0 |issn=1476-4687}}</ref> Dating of the Kapthurin formation's members is described in the following section. It should be noted localized faulting is common in this outcrop, and that the stratigraphy described here is not representative of every Kapthurin outcrop.<ref name=":7" />

=== Geochronology ===
As a lower bound on the age of the Kapthurin, Chemeron Formation has been dated to 1.57 million years ago from [[K–Ar dating|Potassium-Argon dating]] of basaltic rocks. However, the most recent radiometric date in the oldest members of the Kapthurin is ~610,000 years old.<ref name=":1" /> Other radiometric dates and [[Paleomagnetism|paleomagnetic]] [[geochronology]] of tuffs also suggest that the Kapthurin is less than 700,000 years old.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":5" /> The unconformity between the Chemeron and Kapthurin likely represents a significant gap in the geologic record, then. The majority of radiometric dates in the Kapthurin are Argon-Argon dates from Tuffs (described below), The Upper (deposited 537,000-567,000 years ago) and Lower Kasurein Basalts (deposited 650,000-570,00 years ago), and a Trachyte (deposited 542,000-548,000 years ago).<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last=Blegen |first=Nick |last2=Jicha |first2=Brian R. |last3=McBrearty |first3=Sally |date=August 2018 |title=A new tephrochronology for early diverse stone tool technologies and long-distance raw material transport in the Middle to Late Pleistocene Kapthurin Formation, East Africa |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S004724841730177X |journal=Journal of Human Evolution |language=en |volume=121 |pages=75–103 |doi=10.1016/j.jhevol.2018.03.005}}</ref>

==== Notable Tuff Deposits ====
The Kapthurin preserves information from volcanic eruptions in consolidated ash, of tuff. While tuff deposits vary with outcrop location and there are smaller tuff beds in members primarily categorized as silt or gravel <ref name=":6" />, there are three well-researched tuff deposits within the Kapthurin.

The oldest is the Pumice Tuff deposit. It was initially dated to 600,000-800,000 years ago by radiometric dating of [[sanidine]] in the bed, however, [[Paleomagnetism|paleomagnetic]] data indicates that the bed deposited prior to 700,00 years ago.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":5" /> More recent Argon-Argon dating techniques suggest that this tuff is instead 542,000-548,000 years old.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":6" />

The Grey Tuff, which is 500,00-518,000 years old, deposited well after the pumice tuff. It follows the deposition of lake sediments and basalts. Notably, in certain Kapthurin formation outcrops, the Grey Tuff overlies hominin remains, making it an important bed for relative dating. Additionally, the Grey Tuff underlies archaeological sites with evidence of tool industry transitions.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":6" />

The Bedded Tuff contains tools from [[Middle Stone Age]] and [[Acheulean]] tool industries. With the Grey Tuff, Argon-Argon dating brackets several sites associated with hominin activity around the time ''Homo Sapiens'' evolved. It consists of three geochemically distinct [[mafic]] tuffs, defined as Lower, Upper, and Evolved tuffs based on their Magnesium oxide content and listed here from oldest to youngest, stratigraphically. In addition, the Bedded Tuff has two more [[felsic]] tuffs, the Koimolot Tuff (between the Upper and Evolved basaltic tuffs) and the Pumiceous Trachytic Tuff (overlying the Evolved Basaltic tuff). Only the latter has been radiometrically dated due to high sanidine content for Argon-Argon dating, with a wide range of deposition dates from ~233,000-296,000 years old. Still, the fact that Middle Stone Age tools have been found beneath the Pumiceous Trachytic Tuff member confirms this industry's appearance in this region of Africa prior to any other location. Detailed chronology of the bedded tuff member also enables an in depth look at the gradual transition from the Acheulean to the Middle Stone Age tool industries (see Archaeology: Tool Production).<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":6" />

=== Paleoenvironment ===
Geologic evidence in the Kapthurin reveals a dynamic freshwater environment in this area during the Middle Pleistocene. Coarsely-bedded [[Conglomerate (geology)|conglomerates]] record evidence of flash floods, and the Bedded Tuff might represent ash fall into a lake environment, creating thin, well-defined layers.<ref name=":2" />

Detailed evidence of environmental change is seen in a series of three [[tufa]] carbonate beds spanning 1-2 meters in the Middle Salts and Gravels beneath the Upper Kasurein Basalt in the Lake Baringo Kapthurin outcrops. Together, they represent freshwater environmental changes that occurred in the basin ~500,000 years ago. Sediment below the carbonates indicates a fluvial environment, whereas sediment above the series represent a lacustrine environment.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Cara Roure |last2=Ashley |first2=Gail M. |last3=De Wet |first3=Carol B. |last4=Dvoretsky |first4=Rachel |last5=Park |first5=Lisa |last6=Hover |first6=Victoria C. |last7=Bernhart Owen |first7=R. |last8=Mcbrearty |first8=Sally |date=11 May 2009 |title=Tufa as a record of perennial fresh water in a semi-arid rift basin, Kapthurin Formation, Kenya |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-3091.2008.01022.x |journal=Sedimentology |language=en |volume=56 |issue=4 |pages=1115–1137 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-3091.2008.01022.x}}</ref>

The first of the three tufa carbonate layers represents a shallow lake environment fed by groundwater through cracked rocks, as evidenced by their high Magnesium content and interpretations of high water temperature via [[Isotopes of oxygen|oxygen isotopes]]. Subsequent carbonate beds represent deeper, open lake environments. Fossil evidence and associated elevated Strontium levels in the 2nd and 3rd carbonate beds shows how the later lakes sustained more life and had a consistent freshwater source. This could have been a spring source in either the Tugen Hills to the East, or a [[Paleoclimatology|paleoclimatic]] change leading to increasing rainfall, per current hypotheses.

Lastly, each of the tufa three beds, from bottom to top, progresses from a spongy texture to a dense crystalline cap. Each tufa bed is also overlain by either a thin [[clay]] layer or [[paleosol]]. Alongside a heavy oxygen isotope signature in the paleosols that suggests high evaporation, this change in texture indicates cyclical changes in water level. At its maximum, the lake would have covered about 1 km<sup>2</sup>.<ref name=":9" />

While the changing environment would have impacted early hominin movements and resource exploitation, more research is required to understand the relationship between water level, resource availability, and hominin activity.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Cara Roure |last2=McBrearty |first2=Sally |date=8 June 2011 |title=Archaeology of middle Pleistocene lacustrine and spring paleoenvironments in the Kapthurin Formation, Kenya |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0278416512000347 |journal=Journal of Anthropological Archaeology |language=en |volume=31 |issue=4 |pages=485–499 |doi=10.1016/j.jaa.2012.05.001}}</ref>

== Archaeology ==

=== '''Lithics''' ===
The Kapthurin Formation contains the oldest evidence of [[Blade (archaeology)|blade production]], or the repeated manufacture of blades from a single larger stone [[Lithic core|core]], dating to ~500,000 years ago. Notably, this is 150,000 years older than the earliest evidence for blade production in Europe. Specifically, within the Kapthurin Formation outcrop west of Lake Baringo, Kenya, archaeologists have found tools from the Acheulean industry, characterized by large cutting tools such as hand axes in addition to flaking.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Cara Roure |last2=McBrearty |first2=Sally |date=2010-02-01 |title=500,000 year old blades from the Kapthurin Formation, Kenya |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0047248409001730 |journal=Journal of Human Evolution |language=en |volume=58 |issue=2 |pages=193–200 |doi=10.1016/j.jhevol.2009.10.001}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Sahle |first=Yonatan |title=Eastern African Stone Age |date=2020-02-28 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190854584.013.53 |work=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Anthropology |access-date=2023-03-26 |publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref>

In sediment >285,000 years old, Acheulean tools are are interstratified with what is considered Middle Stone Age (300-250,000 years old) technology. Specifically, [[Levallois technique|Levallois]] [[Projectile point|point]] technology, which is typically characterized as a Middle Stone Age phenomenon, appears among Acheulean tools beneath Upper Basaltic Tuff in the Bedded Tuff Member of the Kapthurin. Levallois [[Lithic flake|flakes]] also appear below this tuff at the Acheulian-dominated "Leakey Handaxe Area."<ref name=":8" /> From this interstratification, archaeologists conclude that there was a gradual transition from Acheulean to Middle Stone Age technology than began roughly 280,000 years ago. During and after the transition, regional differences between tools present an even more complex picture. In particular, at sites where they are interstratified with Acheulean tools, Levallois points and flakes do coexist.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Tryon |first=Christian A. |last2=McBrearty |first2=Sally |last3=Texier |first3=Pierre-Jean |date=2006-09-29 |title=Levallois Lithic Technology from the Kapthurin Formation, Kenya: Acheulian Origin and Middle Stone Age Diversity |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10437-006-9002-5 |journal=African Archaeological Review |language=en |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=199–229 |doi=10.1007/s10437-006-9002-5 |issn=0263-0338}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Cara Roure |last2=McBrearty |first2=Sally |date=8 June 2011 |title=Archaeology of middle Pleistocene lacustrine and spring paleoenvironments in the Kapthurin Formation, Kenya |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0278416512000347 |journal=Journal of Anthropological Archaeology |language=en |volume=31 |issue=4 |pages=485–499 |doi=10.1016/j.jaa.2012.05.001}}</ref>

Middle Stone Age technology is associated with anatomically modern ''Homo Sapiens.'' The gradual transition and regionally differentiated tools suggest a "long term evolutionary process".<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Pettit |first=Paul |title=The Human Past: World Prehistory and the Development of Human Societies |publisher=Thames and Hudson |year=2018 |edition=4th |location=London |pages=108-125}}</ref> The departure from the long-standing Acheulean industry may also link to environmental changes in the freshwater spring environment that existed more than 500,000 years ago near present day Lake Baringo as well.<ref name=":4" />

=== '''Ochre''' ===
⚫
[[Argon–argon dating]] of volcanic ash overlying [[ochre]] fragments found there has dated what may represent some of the earliest human aesthetic sensibility to 285,000 years ago. The ochre fragments must have been brought to the site by human agency and may have been used as body adornment.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mcbrearty |first=Sally |last2=Brooks |first2=Alison S. |date=26 July 2000 |title=The revolution that wasn't: a new interpretation of the origin of modern human behavior |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0047248400904354 |journal=Journal of Human Evolution |language=en |volume=39 |issue=5 |pages=453–563 |doi=10.1006/jhev.2000.0435}}</ref>


== References ==
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
{{Reflist}}

; Sources
Tryon, CA and McBrearty, S, 2002, "Tephrostatigraphy and the Acheulean to Middle Stone Age transition in the Kapthurin Formation, Kenya", ''Journal of Human Evolution'' 42, 211–35, qtd in Scarre, C (ed.) (2005). The Human Past, London: Thames and Hudson. {{ISBN|0-500-28531-4}}.


{{Archaeological sites in Kenya}}
{{Archaeological sites in Kenya}}

Revision as of 19:57, 14 April 2023

Kapthurin Formation
Stratigraphic range: Middle Pleistocene, 0.61–0.23 Ma (See geochronology)
↓
TypeGeological formation
Unit of Tugen Hills Sequence
Sub-unitsSee stratigraphy
UnderliesKokwob (Loboi) Formation
OverliesChemeron Formation
Thickness~125 m
Lithology
PrimarySilt, gravel
OtherBasalt, tuff, trachyte, conglomerate, tufa
Location
LocationGreat Rift Valley, Kenya
Coordinates0°19′N 35°35′E / 0.31°N 35.58°E / 0.31; 35.58
Extent~150 km2
Kapthurin Formation is located in Kenya
Kapthurin Formation
class=notpageimage|
Kapthurin Formation outcrop W of Lake Baringo

The Kapthurin Formation is a series of Middle Pleistocene sediments associated with the East African Rift Valley. Part of the East African Rift System, it is also an important archaeological site in the study of early humans who occupied the area and left stone tools and animal bones behind. It outcrops in Kenya west of Lake Bogoria and northwest of Lake Baringo in the Kenya Rift Valley, exposed on the surface in a 150 km2 area.[1] It also outcrops in portions of the Tugen Hills farther east.[2] The ~125 meters of sediment that comprises the Kapthurin formation represents more than 600,000 years of depositional history.[1][3] Clastic sediments, tuffs, and carbonate beds, in the Kapthurin give information on past river and lake environments. Additionally, intercalated tuffs and extrusive igneous rocks associated with Rift Valley volcanic activity have allowed for multiple Argon-Argon dating studies. The high resolution dating enables archaeological studies regarding changing hominin behavior. The Kapthurin Formation has been used to study the Acheulian-Middle Stone Age transition.[4]

Geology

Geologic Context

The Kapthurin is on the floor of the basin of a half-graben that forms the Kenya Rift. This is one of two half-grabens in the Eastern portion of the East Africa Rift Valley. Because of nearby North-South striking normal faults that form this half-graben, the Kapthurin and other sedimentary formations are on a fault block tiled to the West. The formation contains lacustrine, fluvial, and volcanic rocks (specifically basalts and trachytes). Generally, clastic sediments dominate the formation, but evidence of volcanic activity from tuffs and rocks representing lava flows are found throughout.[2][3][5][6]

Stratigraphy

The Kapthurin overlies the Chemeron Formation, dated to roughly 1.57 million years ago, unconformably. The bulk Kapthurin formation has been dated to the Middle Pleistocene based on fossil evidence.[2][5] An idealized stratigraphic characterization divides the formation into 5 members, listed here in descending order with their geologic abbreviations and intercalated tuffs and lava flows (also in descending order).[1]

K5) Upper Silts and Gravels

K4) The Bedded Tuff

K3) Middle Silts and Gravels

  • Gray Tuff
  • Upper Kasurein Basalt

K2) Pumice Tuff

K1) Lower Silts and Gravels

  • Lower Kasurein Basalt

The Kokwob formation (also called the Loboi Formation) overlies the Kapthurin unconformably, with sediments being of Holocene or Late Pleistocene Age. These sediments represent the present day erosional activity and deposition. Stratigraphically, a major faulting episode separates the Kapthurin and Kokwob.[1][7] Dating of the Kapthurin formation's members is described in the following section. It should be noted localized faulting is common in this outcrop, and that the stratigraphy described here is not representative of every Kapthurin outcrop.[5]

Geochronology

As a lower bound on the age of the Kapthurin, Chemeron Formation has been dated to 1.57 million years ago from Potassium-Argon dating of basaltic rocks. However, the most recent radiometric date in the oldest members of the Kapthurin is ~610,000 years old.[1] Other radiometric dates and paleomagnetic geochronology of tuffs also suggest that the Kapthurin is less than 700,000 years old.[2][3] The unconformity between the Chemeron and Kapthurin likely represents a significant gap in the geologic record, then. The majority of radiometric dates in the Kapthurin are Argon-Argon dates from Tuffs (described below), The Upper (deposited 537,000-567,000 years ago) and Lower Kasurein Basalts (deposited 650,000-570,00 years ago), and a Trachyte (deposited 542,000-548,000 years ago).[1][8]

Notable Tuff Deposits

The Kapthurin preserves information from volcanic eruptions in consolidated ash, of tuff. While tuff deposits vary with outcrop location and there are smaller tuff beds in members primarily categorized as silt or gravel [8], there are three well-researched tuff deposits within the Kapthurin.

The oldest is the Pumice Tuff deposit. It was initially dated to 600,000-800,000 years ago by radiometric dating of sanidine in the bed, however, paleomagnetic data indicates that the bed deposited prior to 700,00 years ago.[2][3] More recent Argon-Argon dating techniques suggest that this tuff is instead 542,000-548,000 years old.[1][8]

The Grey Tuff, which is 500,00-518,000 years old, deposited well after the pumice tuff. It follows the deposition of lake sediments and basalts. Notably, in certain Kapthurin formation outcrops, the Grey Tuff overlies hominin remains, making it an important bed for relative dating. Additionally, the Grey Tuff underlies archaeological sites with evidence of tool industry transitions.[1][8]

The Bedded Tuff contains tools from Middle Stone Age and Acheulean tool industries. With the Grey Tuff, Argon-Argon dating brackets several sites associated with hominin activity around the time Homo Sapiens evolved. It consists of three geochemically distinct mafic tuffs, defined as Lower, Upper, and Evolved tuffs based on their Magnesium oxide content and listed here from oldest to youngest, stratigraphically. In addition, the Bedded Tuff has two more felsic tuffs, the Koimolot Tuff (between the Upper and Evolved basaltic tuffs) and the Pumiceous Trachytic Tuff (overlying the Evolved Basaltic tuff). Only the latter has been radiometrically dated due to high sanidine content for Argon-Argon dating, with a wide range of deposition dates from ~233,000-296,000 years old. Still, the fact that Middle Stone Age tools have been found beneath the Pumiceous Trachytic Tuff member confirms this industry's appearance in this region of Africa prior to any other location. Detailed chronology of the bedded tuff member also enables an in depth look at the gradual transition from the Acheulean to the Middle Stone Age tool industries (see Archaeology: Tool Production).[1][8]

Paleoenvironment

Geologic evidence in the Kapthurin reveals a dynamic freshwater environment in this area during the Middle Pleistocene. Coarsely-bedded conglomerates record evidence of flash floods, and the Bedded Tuff might represent ash fall into a lake environment, creating thin, well-defined layers.[2]

Detailed evidence of environmental change is seen in a series of three tufa carbonate beds spanning 1-2 meters in the Middle Salts and Gravels beneath the Upper Kasurein Basalt in the Lake Baringo Kapthurin outcrops. Together, they represent freshwater environmental changes that occurred in the basin ~500,000 years ago. Sediment below the carbonates indicates a fluvial environment, whereas sediment above the series represent a lacustrine environment.[9]

The first of the three tufa carbonate layers represents a shallow lake environment fed by groundwater through cracked rocks, as evidenced by their high Magnesium content and interpretations of high water temperature via oxygen isotopes. Subsequent carbonate beds represent deeper, open lake environments. Fossil evidence and associated elevated Strontium levels in the 2nd and 3rd carbonate beds shows how the later lakes sustained more life and had a consistent freshwater source. This could have been a spring source in either the Tugen Hills to the East, or a paleoclimatic change leading to increasing rainfall, per current hypotheses.

Lastly, each of the tufa three beds, from bottom to top, progresses from a spongy texture to a dense crystalline cap. Each tufa bed is also overlain by either a thin clay layer or paleosol. Alongside a heavy oxygen isotope signature in the paleosols that suggests high evaporation, this change in texture indicates cyclical changes in water level. At its maximum, the lake would have covered about 1 km2.[9]

While the changing environment would have impacted early hominin movements and resource exploitation, more research is required to understand the relationship between water level, resource availability, and hominin activity.[10]

Archaeology

Lithics

The Kapthurin Formation contains the oldest evidence of blade production, or the repeated manufacture of blades from a single larger stone core, dating to ~500,000 years ago. Notably, this is 150,000 years older than the earliest evidence for blade production in Europe. Specifically, within the Kapthurin Formation outcrop west of Lake Baringo, Kenya, archaeologists have found tools from the Acheulean industry, characterized by large cutting tools such as hand axes in addition to flaking.[11][12]

In sediment >285,000 years old, Acheulean tools are are interstratified with what is considered Middle Stone Age (300-250,000 years old) technology. Specifically, Levallois point technology, which is typically characterized as a Middle Stone Age phenomenon, appears among Acheulean tools beneath Upper Basaltic Tuff in the Bedded Tuff Member of the Kapthurin. Levallois flakes also appear below this tuff at the Acheulian-dominated "Leakey Handaxe Area."[6] From this interstratification, archaeologists conclude that there was a gradual transition from Acheulean to Middle Stone Age technology than began roughly 280,000 years ago. During and after the transition, regional differences between tools present an even more complex picture. In particular, at sites where they are interstratified with Acheulean tools, Levallois points and flakes do coexist.[1][13][14]

Middle Stone Age technology is associated with anatomically modern Homo Sapiens. The gradual transition and regionally differentiated tools suggest a "long term evolutionary process".[13][15] The departure from the long-standing Acheulean industry may also link to environmental changes in the freshwater spring environment that existed more than 500,000 years ago near present day Lake Baringo as well.[14]

Ochre

Argon–argon dating of volcanic ash overlying ochre fragments found there has dated what may represent some of the earliest human aesthetic sensibility to 285,000 years ago. The ochre fragments must have been brought to the site by human agency and may have been used as body adornment.[16]

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Tryon, Christian A.; McBrearty, Sally (10 March 2006). "Tephrostratigraphy of the Bedded Tuff Member (Kapthurin Formation, Kenya) and the nature of archaeological change in the later middle Pleistocene". Quaternary Research. 65 (3): 492–507. doi:10.1016/j.yqres.2006.01.008. ISSN 0033-5894.
  2. ^ a b c d e f Hill, A.; Curtis, G.; Drake, R. (1986). "Sedimentary stratigraphy of the Tugen Hills, Baringo, Kenya". Geological Society, London, Special Publications. 25 (1): 285–295. doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.1986.025.01.23. ISSN 0305-8719.
  3. ^ a b c d Cornelissen, E.; Boven, A.; Dabi, A.; Hus, J.; Yong, K. Ju; Keppens, E.; Langohr, R.; Moeyersons, J.; Pasteels, P.; Pieters, M.; Uytterschaut, H.; Van Noten, F.; Workineh, H. (1990). "The Kapthurin Formation revisited". African Archaeological Review. 8 (1): 23–75. doi:10.1007/bf01116871. ISSN 0263-0338.
  4. ^ Tryon, Christian A. (April 2006). ""Early" Middle Stone Age Lithic Technology of the Kapthurin Formation (Kenya)". Current Anthropology. 47 (2): 367–375. doi:10.1086/503066. ISSN 0011-3204.
  5. ^ a b c Tryon, Christian A.; McBrearty, Sally (25 June 2001). "Tephrostratigraphy and the Acheulian to Middle Stone Age transition in the Kapthurin Formation, Kenya". Journal of Human Evolution. 42 (1–2): 211–235. doi:10.1006/jhev.2001.0513.
  6. ^ a b "The origins of the Middle Stone Age and Levallois technology: Kapthurin Formation, Lake Baringo, Kenya". scholar.harvard.edu. Retrieved 2 April 2023.
  7. ^ Young, J. a. T.; Renaut, R. W. (1979). "A radiocarbon date from Lake Bogoria, Kenya Rift Valley". Nature. 278 (5701): 243–245. doi:10.1038/278243a0. ISSN 1476-4687.
  8. ^ a b c d e Blegen, Nick; Jicha, Brian R.; McBrearty, Sally (August 2018). "A new tephrochronology for early diverse stone tool technologies and long-distance raw material transport in the Middle to Late Pleistocene Kapthurin Formation, East Africa". Journal of Human Evolution. 121: 75–103. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2018.03.005.
  9. ^ a b Johnson, Cara Roure; Ashley, Gail M.; De Wet, Carol B.; Dvoretsky, Rachel; Park, Lisa; Hover, Victoria C.; Bernhart Owen, R.; Mcbrearty, Sally (11 May 2009). "Tufa as a record of perennial fresh water in a semi-arid rift basin, Kapthurin Formation, Kenya". Sedimentology. 56 (4): 1115–1137. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3091.2008.01022.x.
  10. ^ Johnson, Cara Roure; McBrearty, Sally (8 June 2011). "Archaeology of middle Pleistocene lacustrine and spring paleoenvironments in the Kapthurin Formation, Kenya". Journal of Anthropological Archaeology. 31 (4): 485–499. doi:10.1016/j.jaa.2012.05.001.
  11. ^ Johnson, Cara Roure; McBrearty, Sally (1 February 2010). "500,000 year old blades from the Kapthurin Formation, Kenya". Journal of Human Evolution. 58 (2): 193–200. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2009.10.001.
  12. ^ Sahle, Yonatan (28 February 2020), "Eastern African Stone Age", Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Anthropology, Oxford University Press, retrieved 26 March 2023
  13. ^ a b Tryon, Christian A.; McBrearty, Sally; Texier, Pierre-Jean (29 September 2006). "Levallois Lithic Technology from the Kapthurin Formation, Kenya: Acheulian Origin and Middle Stone Age Diversity". African Archaeological Review. 22 (4): 199–229. doi:10.1007/s10437-006-9002-5. ISSN 0263-0338.
  14. ^ a b Johnson, Cara Roure; McBrearty, Sally (8 June 2011). "Archaeology of middle Pleistocene lacustrine and spring paleoenvironments in the Kapthurin Formation, Kenya". Journal of Anthropological Archaeology. 31 (4): 485–499. doi:10.1016/j.jaa.2012.05.001.
  15. ^ Pettit, Paul (2018). The Human Past: World Prehistory and the Development of Human Societies (4th ed.). London: Thames and Hudson. pp. 108–125.
  16. ^ Mcbrearty, Sally; Brooks, Alison S. (26 July 2000). "The revolution that wasn't: a new interpretation of the origin of modern human behavior". Journal of Human Evolution. 39 (5): 453–563. doi:10.1006/jhev.2000.0435.
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