Aichivirus A: Difference between revisions

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{{virusbox
{{virusbox
| parent = Kobuvirus
| parent = Kobuvirus
| species = Aichivirus A
| species = Aichivirus A
}}'''''Aichivirus A''''' formerly '''Aichi virus''' ('''AiV''')<ref name="Carmona-Vicente_2013">{{cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Carmona-Vicente N, Buesa J, Brown PA, Merga JY, Darby AC, Stavisky J, Sadler L, Gaskell RM, Dawson S, Radford AD |date=June 2013 |title=Phylogeny and prevalence of kobuviruses in dogs and cats in the UK |journal=Veterinary Microbiology |volume=164 |issue=3–4 |pages=246–52 |doi=10.1016/j.vetmic.2013.02.014 |pmc=7127238 |pmid=23490561}}</ref> belongs to the genus ''[[Kobuvirus]]'' in the family [[Picornavirus|''Picornaviridae'']]<ref name=":4">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kitajima M, Gerba CP |date=May 2015 |title=Aichi virus 1: environmental occurrence and behavior |journal=Pathogens |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=256–268 |doi=10.3390/pathogens4020256 |pmc=4493473 |pmid=25996404 |doi-access=free}}</ref>. Six species are apart of the genus ''[[Kobuvirus]]'', Aichivirus A-F<ref name=":0" />. Within Aichivirus A, there are six different types including human Aichi virus, canine kobuvirus, murine kobuvirus, Kathmandu sewage kobuvirus, roller kobuvirus, and feline kobuvirus<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Rivadulla |first=Enrique |last2=Romalde |first2=Jesús L. |date=2020-04-27 |title=A Comprehensive Review on Human Aichi Virus |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7223127/ |journal=Virologica Sinica |volume=35 |issue=5 |pages=501–516 |doi=10.1007/s12250-020-00222-5 |issn=1674-0769 |pmc=7223127 |pmid=32342286}}</ref>.Three different genotypes are found in human Aichi virus, represented as [[genotype]] A, B, and C <ref name=":0" />.
}}
'''Aichivirus A''' formerly '''Aichi virus''' ('''AiV''')<ref name="Carmona-Vicente_2013">{{cite journal | vauthors = Carmona-Vicente N, Buesa J, Brown PA, Merga JY, Darby AC, Stavisky J, Sadler L, Gaskell RM, Dawson S, Radford AD | display-authors = 6 | title = Phylogeny and prevalence of kobuviruses in dogs and cats in the UK | journal = Veterinary Microbiology | volume = 164 | issue = 3–4 | pages = 246–52 | date = June 2013 | pmid = 23490561 | pmc = 7127238 | doi = 10.1016/j.vetmic.2013.02.014 }}</ref> is a small, round, [[cytopathic]] [[RNA virus#Single-stranded RNA viruses and RNA Sense|positive sense and ssRNA virus]]. It belongs to the genus [[Kobuvirus]] in the family [[Picornavirus|Picornaviridae]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kitajima M, Gerba CP | title = Aichi virus 1: environmental occurrence and behavior | journal = Pathogens | volume = 4 | issue = 2 | pages = 256–268 | date = May 2015 | pmid = 25996404 | pmc = 4493473 | doi = 10.3390/pathogens4020256 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Aichivirus A was originally identified after a 1989 outbreak of acute [[gastroenteritis]] in the [[Aichi Prefecture]], and was likely linked to raw [[oyster]] per genetic analysis.<ref name="Carmona-Vicente_2013" /><ref>{{cite book| vauthors = Mahy BW | title=A Dictionary of Virology | chapter = Aichi virus (AiV)| chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=vYotjPWL_2IC&pg=PA9 |date=2001 |publisher=Academic Press |location=San Diego, California |isbn=978-0-12-465327-6 |pages = 9 | edition = 3rd }}</ref><ref name="Desselberger2003">{{cite book| vauthors = Desselberger U |title=Viral Gastroenteritis |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=crOf-W3g-MQC&pg=PA645 |year=2003 |publisher=Gulf Professional Publishing |isbn=978-0-444-51444-8 |pages=645–}}</ref>


AiV is a non-enveloped [[RNA virus#Single-stranded RNA viruses and RNA Sense|positive sense ssRNA virus]] with icosahedral morphology<ref name=":0" />. Aichivirus A was originally identified after a 1989 outbreak of acute [[gastroenteritis]] in the [[Aichi Prefecture]] that was linked to raw [[oyster]] consumption per genetic analysis<ref name="Carmona-Vicente_2013" /><ref>{{cite book |title=A Dictionary of Virology |vauthors=Mahy BW |date=2001 |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0-12-465327-6 |edition=3rd |location=San Diego, California |pages=9 |chapter=Aichi virus (AiV) |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vYotjPWL_2IC&pg=PA9}}</ref><ref name="Desselberger2003">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=crOf-W3g-MQC&pg=PA645 |title=Viral Gastroenteritis |vauthors=Desselberger U |publisher=Gulf Professional Publishing |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-444-51444-8 |pages=645–}}</ref>. Human Aichi Virus can cause gastroenteritis with symptoms arising such as vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, nausea, and fever <ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yamashita |first=Teruo |last2=Ito |first2=Miyabi |last3=Tsuzuki |first3=Hideaki |last4=Sakae |first4=Kenji |date=2001-11 |title=Identification of Aichi Virus Infection by Measurement of Immunoglobulin Responses in an Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC88511/ |journal=Journal of Clinical Microbiology |volume=39 |issue=11 |pages=4178–4180 |doi=10.1128/JCM.39.11.4178-4180.2001 |issn=0095-1137 |pmid=11682554}}</ref>.
⚫
It has since been isolated in studies of [[Finland|Finnish]] children,<ref name="pmid19961643">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kaikkonen S, Räsänen S, Rämet M, Vesikari T | title = Aichi virus infection in children with acute gastroenteritis in Finland | journal = Epidemiology and Infection | volume = 138 | issue = 8 | pages = 1166–71 | date = August 2010 | pmid = 19961643 | doi = 10.1017/S0950268809991300 | s2cid = 39830543 | url = https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/epidemiology-and-infection/article/aichi-virus-infection-in-children-with-acute-gastroenteritis-in-finland/2F36FDE6232EC79EF4707C10A6324895 }}; {{lay source |template=cite book | vauthors = Acton QA | chapter = Aichi virus infection in children with acute gastroenteritis in Finland | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Txe-WGjCm-oC&pg=PT793 |title=Issues in Global, Public, Community, and Institutional Health |date=2011 |publisher=ScholarlyEditions |isbn=978-1-4649-6382-7 | page = 793 }}</ref> [[Pakistani]] children, and [[Japan]]ese travelers.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Yamashita T, Sakae K, Kobayashi S, Ishihara Y, Miyake T, Mubina A, Isomura S | display-authors = 6 | title = Isolation of cytopathic small round virus (Aichi virus) from Pakistani children and Japanese travelers from Southeast Asia | journal = Microbiology and Immunology | volume = 39 | issue = 6 | pages = 433–435 | year = 1995 | pmid = 8551977 | doi = 10.1111/j.1348-0421.1995.tb02225.x | doi-access = }}</ref>

⚫
Aichivirus A can be found in a variety of environmental areas including sewage, groundwater, river water, and shellfish<ref name=":4" />. Aichivirus A is present in many world regions, and in sometimes greater abundance than other well-known [[enteric]] viruses<ref name=":4" />. Aichiviruses have been seen in Asia, Europe, South America, and Africa<ref name=":4" />.It has since been isolated in populations of [[Finland|Finnish]] children,<ref name="pmid19961643">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kaikkonen S, Räsänen S, Rämet M, Vesikari T |date=August 2010 |title=Aichi virus infection in children with acute gastroenteritis in Finland |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/epidemiology-and-infection/article/aichi-virus-infection-in-children-with-acute-gastroenteritis-in-finland/2F36FDE6232EC79EF4707C10A6324895 |journal=Epidemiology and Infection |volume=138 |issue=8 |pages=1166–71 |doi=10.1017/S0950268809991300 |pmid=19961643 |s2cid=39830543}}; {{lay source|template=cite book|vauthors=Acton QA|chapter=Aichi virus infection in children with acute gastroenteritis in Finland|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Txe-WGjCm-oC&pg=PT793|title=Issues in Global, Public, Community, and Institutional Health|date=2011|publisher=ScholarlyEditions|isbn=978-1-4649-6382-7|page=793}}</ref> [[Pakistani]] children, and [[Japan|Japanese]] travelers.<ref>{{cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Yamashita T, Sakae K, Kobayashi S, Ishihara Y, Miyake T, Mubina A, Isomura S |year=1995 |title=Isolation of cytopathic small round virus (Aichi virus) from Pakistani children and Japanese travelers from Southeast Asia |journal=Microbiology and Immunology |volume=39 |issue=6 |pages=433–435 |doi=10.1111/j.1348-0421.1995.tb02225.x |pmid=8551977 |doi-access=}}</ref> The widespread nature of aichivirus A can be seen in the high percentage of AiV antibodies in adult human populations found in several countries <ref name=":0" />.

Transmission occurs through the [[Fecal–oral route|fecal-oral route]]<ref name=":4" />. After the virus is replicated in the [[Gastrointestinal tract|gastrointestinal tract,]] the pathogen can be found in fecal samples of infected individuals<ref name=":4" />. Water and shellfish contaminated with human sewage can propagate aichivirus A<ref name=":4" />.

== Discovery ==
[[File:Map of Japan with highlight on 23 Aichi prefecture.svg|thumb|Location of Aichi Prefecture in Japan. The location of the first Aichivirus outbreak. ]]


Aichivirus A was first characterized after an outbreak of gastroenteritis in the Aichi Prefecture of Japan, this region is where the name of the virus was derived from<ref name="Desselberger2003" />. Fecal samples from infected individuals were taken and transported to a lab where they described the novel virus<ref name="Desselberger2003" />.These viral particles were 30nm in diameter, a spherical shape, and cytopathic for BSC-1 cells (kidney cells of [[African green monkey kidney cell|African green monkey]])<ref name=":0" /> <ref name="Desselberger2003" />. The infection was attributed to contaminated raw oyster found in vinegar<ref name="Desselberger2003" />.

Aichivirus A has been seen and described across many Asian countries, however the first appearance of aichivirus outside of this region was isolated in Europe and South America in 2006<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last=Oh |first=D.-Y. |last2=Silva |first2=P. A. |last3=Hauroeder |first3=B. |last4=Diedrich |first4=S. |last5=Cardoso |first5=D. D. P. |last6=Schreier |first6=E. |date=2006-06 |title=Molecular characterization of the first Aichi viruses isolated in Europe and in South America |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16421634/ |journal=Archives of Virology |volume=151 |issue=6 |pages=1199–1206 |doi=10.1007/s00705-005-0706-7 |issn=0304-8608 |pmid=16421634}}</ref>. Through genetic analysis of isolates from Brazil and Germany, the nucleotide sequences were found to be similar to known Aichivirus nucleotide sequences<ref name=":7" />. Notably, the German strain appeared to be of genotype A and the Brazil strain appeared to be of genotype B <ref name=":7" />. Screening in Germany for antibodies to Aichivirus displayed a [[seroprevalence]] of 76%, which is comparable to seroprevalence in Japan <ref name=":7" />. Therefore, European infection with Aichivirus is as common as it is in Asia <ref name=":7" />.

== Human Infection ==
[[File:Class IV virus (ssRNA +) RNA synthesis.svg|thumb|253x253px|Positive Sense Single-Stranded RNA Viral Mechanism]]

==== Viral Propagation in Human Host Cells ====
Aichivirus A enters host cells through [[receptor-mediated endocytosis]], a cellular uptake mechanism<ref name=":0" />. After viral attachment and entry, the virion particle is uncoated releasing the genome into the cytoplasm<ref name=":0" />. Similar to other viruses within the ''[[Picornavirus|Picornaviridae]]'' family, viral replication and translation occurs in the cytoplasm<ref name=":1">{{Citation |last=Bergelson |first=Jeffrey M. |title=Picornavirus Entry |date=2013 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-7651-1_2 |work=Viral Entry into Host Cells |pages=24–41 |editor-last=Pöhlmann |editor-first=Stefan |access-date=2023-10-30 |series=Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology |place=New York, NY |publisher=Springer |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-1-4614-7651-1_2 |isbn=978-1-4614-7651-1 |last2=Coyne |first2=Carolyn B. |editor2-last=Simmons |editor2-first=Graham}}</ref>. The positive sense ssRNA is directly translated into protein by the host cell ribosomes, while some of the ssRNA is used as a template to replicate the viral genome. Capsid proteins, L protein, nonstructural proteins, and stable intermediates are produced after the polyprotein is processed. Protein production is directly related to synthesis of plus-strand RNA replication complex <ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" />. The plus-strand RNA genome is packaged into the assembled viral particle, along with VpG (Viral genomic protein)<ref name=":0" />. A completed viral particle has 60 capsid proteins copies made up of 12 pentamers <ref name=":0" />. The pentamer is made up by the 5S subunit composed of VP0, VP1, and VP3 protein aggregates <ref name=":0" />. After the viral particle is assembled, it is released from host cells by cell lysis, making Aichivirus A a [[Lytic cycle|lytic virus]] <ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zell |first=Roland |date=2018-02 |title=Picornaviridae-the ever-growing virus family |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29058149/ |journal=Archives of Virology |volume=163 |issue=2 |pages=299–317 |doi=10.1007/s00705-017-3614-8 |issn=1432-8798 |pmid=29058149}}</ref>.

==== Characteristics of Human Infection ====
Most aichivirus A infection in humans are mild, asymptomatic infections lasting between 48-72 hours<ref name=":0" />. However, it can develop into the common symptoms of gastroenteritis: fever, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal |last=Carter |first=M.J. |date=2005-06 |title=Enterically infecting viruses: pathogenicity, transmission and significance for food and waterborne infection |url=https://academic.oup.com/jambio/article/98/6/1354/6722116 |journal=Journal of Applied Microbiology |language=en |volume=98 |issue=6 |pages=1354–1380 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2672.2005.02635.x}}</ref><ref name=":0" />. Viral replication in the gastrointestinal tract damages the enterocyte layer in the [[Intestinal villus|intestinal villi]] interfering with water reabsorption <ref name=":10" />. This can lead to the symptoms appearing with infection.

Aichivirus A can become an [[Opportunistic infection|opportunistic pathogen]] in those with [[HIV]] and is seen in high levels in the feces of those with [[HIV]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Oude Munnink |first=Bas B. |last2=Canuti |first2=Marta |last3=Deijs |first3=Martin |last4=de Vries |first4=Michel |last5=Jebbink |first5=Maarten F. |last6=Rebers |first6=Sjoerd |last7=Molenkamp |first7=Richard |last8=van Hemert |first8=Formijn J. |last9=Chung |first9=Kevin |last10=Cotten |first10=Matthew |last11=Snijders |first11=Fransje |last12=Sol |first12=Cees J. A. |last13=van der Hoek |first13=Lia |date=2014-01-13 |title=Unexplained diarrhoea in HIV-1 infected individuals |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24410947/ |journal=BMC infectious diseases |volume=14 |pages=22 |doi=10.1186/1471-2334-14-22 |issn=1471-2334 |pmc=3925291 |pmid=24410947}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last=Meyts |first=Isabelle |last2=Bucciol |first2=Giorgia |last3=Jansen |first3=Katrien |last4=Wollants |first4=Elke |last5=Breuer |first5=Judith |date=2023-04-01 |title=Aichivirus: an Emerging Pathogen in Patients with Primary and Secondary B-Cell Deficiency |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10875-022-01410-6 |journal=Journal of Clinical Immunology |language=en |volume=43 |issue=3 |pages=532–535 |doi=10.1007/s10875-022-01410-6 |issn=1573-2592}}</ref>. Aichivirus A is also suspected as an opportunistic pathogan in those with [[X-linked agammaglobulinemia]].<ref name=":5" /> Aichivirus is an emerging pathogen in those with B-cell deficiencies, however there is no explanation why<ref name=":5" /> In patients with primary immune deficiencies, chronic aichivirus infection can cause [[immunodysregulation]]<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Fourgeaud |first=Jacques |last2=Lecuit |first2=Mathilde M |last3=Pérot |first3=Philippe |last4=Bruneau |first4=Julie |last5=Regnault |first5=Beatrice |last6=Da Rocha |first6=Nicolas |last7=Bessaud |first7=Mael |last8=Picard |first8=Capucine |last9=Jeziorski |first9=Éric |last10=Fournier |first10=Benjamin |last11=Levy |first11=Romain |last12=Marçais |first12=Ambroise |last13=Blanche |first13=Stéphane |last14=Frange |first14=Pierre |last15=Fischer |first15=Alain |date=2023-04-20 |title=Chronic Aichi Virus Infection As a Cause of Long-Lasting Multiorgan Involvement in Patients With Primary Immune Deficiencies |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciad237 |journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases |volume=77 |issue=4 |pages=620–628 |doi=10.1093/cid/ciad237 |issn=1058-4838}}</ref>. Human aichivirus was deemed to effect multiple organs leading to the clinical symptom presentation<ref name=":3" />. The aichivirus genome was detected in symptomatic patients and in infected organs, while was not seen in asymptomatic individuals <ref name=":3" />. Notably, in Japan there is a correlation with aichivirus A infection and lower respiratory tract disease <ref name=":6" />.

== The Viral Genome ==
[[File:Fcimb-09-00283-g001.jpg|thumb|305x305px|Picornavirus Genome Organization (Aichivirus A is a member of the Picornavirus family). ]]


The RNA genome of AiV A is composed of 8280 nucleotides. Along the 5' end of the RNA, there is an untranslated region consisting of 744 nucleotides, a VpG protein, and an internal ribosomal entry site (IRES). Following the 5' untranslated region, the [[open reading frame]] is approximately 7.3kB consisting of 2432 amino acids. The L protein, leader peptide, is the first protein translated within the polypeptide, followed by the structural proteins, and then nonstructural proteins. Cleavage into the different proteins occurs by viral proteases<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Sabin |first=Charles |last2=Füzik |first2=Tibor |last3=Škubník |first3=Karel |last4=Pálková |first4=Lenka |last5=Lindberg |first5=A. Michael |last6=Plevka |first6=Pavel |date=2016-12 |editor-last=López |editor-first=S. |title=Structure of Aichi Virus 1 and Its Empty Particle: Clues to Kobuvirus Genome Release Mechanism |url=https://journals.asm.org/doi/10.1128/JVI.01601-16 |journal=Journal of Virology |language=en |volume=90 |issue=23 |pages=10800–10810 |doi=10.1128/JVI.01601-16 |issn=0022-538X |pmc=PMC5110158 |pmid=27681122}}</ref>. The capsid proteins are made up of three segments in the RNA: VP0, VP3, and VP1 <ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2" />. These capsid proteins together are known as the P1 region on the genome<ref name=":0" />. The encoded capsid proteins form a [[protomer]] that form into 12 pentamers during self-assembly<ref name=":2" /> <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Palmenberg |first=A C |date=1982-12 |title=In vitro synthesis and assembly of picornaviral capsid intermediate structures |url=https://journals.asm.org/doi/10.1128/jvi.44.3.900-906.1982 |journal=Journal of Virology |language=en |volume=44 |issue=3 |pages=900–906 |doi=10.1128/jvi.44.3.900-906.1982 |issn=0022-538X |pmc=PMC256349 |pmid=6294338}}</ref>. X-ray crystallography of human aichi virus virion structure determined that the VP3 knob structure and VP0 surface loop are smaller compared to other viruses in picornaviruses <ref name=":2" />. P2 and P3 are the regions of the RNA genome that are the non-structural proteins involved in replication control<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zhu |first=Ling |last2=Wang |first2=Xiangxi |last3=Ren |first3=Jingshan |last4=Kotecha |first4=Abhay |last5=Walter |first5=Thomas S. |last6=Yuan |first6=Shuai |last7=Yamashita |first7=Teruo |last8=Tuthill |first8=Tobias J. |last9=Fry |first9=Elizabeth E. |last10=Rao |first10=Zihe |last11=Stuart |first11=David I. |date=2016-09-05 |title=Structure of human Aichi virus and implications for receptor binding |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nmicrobiol2016150 |journal=Nature Microbiology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=11 |pages=1–6 |doi=10.1038/nmicrobiol.2016.150 |issn=2058-5276}}</ref>. For example, the protein 3D within the P3 region encodes for the viral [[RNA-dependent RNA polymerase]] used in replication<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yamashita |first=Teruo |last2=Sakae |first2=Kenji |date=2003 |title=VI, 3. Molecular biology and epidemiology of Aichi virus and other diarrhoeogenic enteroviruses |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32336843/ |journal=Perspectives in Medical Virology |volume=9 |pages=645–657 |doi=10.1016/S0168-7069(03)09040-2 |issn=0168-7069 |pmc=7172506 |pmid=32336843}}</ref>. The 3B protein also in the P3 region encodes for the VpG protein, which is important promoting replication. Following the P2 and P3 region, there is a 3' untranslated region of about 237 nucleotides and a poly-A tail <ref name=":0" />

==== Genotypic Differences in Human Aichivirus ====
Differences at the 3CD nonstructural protein junction in the viral genome results in distinct genotypic differences<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last=Ambert-Balay |first=K. |last2=Lorrot |first2=M. |last3=Bon |first3=F. |last4=Giraudon |first4=H. |last5=Kaplon |first5=J. |last6=Wolfer |first6=M. |last7=Lebon |first7=P. |last8=Gendrel |first8=D. |last9=Pothier |first9=P. |date=2008-04 |title=Prevalence and genetic diversity of Aichi virus strains in stool samples from community and hospitalized patients |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18256215/ |journal=Journal of Clinical Microbiology |volume=46 |issue=4 |pages=1252–1258 |doi=10.1128/JCM.02140-07 |issn=1098-660X |pmc=2292896 |pmid=18256215}}</ref><ref name=":0" />. When comparing the junction between the C-terminus of the 3C region and the N-terminus of the 3D region, three distinct genotypic types are seen <ref name=":0" />. In studies, there appeared to be a geographical distribution to the [[Genotype|genotypes]]. In some countries genotype B is prevalent, while in others genotype A dominates. In Finland and Spain genotype A was more prevalent<ref name="pmid19961643" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rivadulla |first=Enrique |last2=Varela |first2=Miguel F. |last3=Romalde |first3=Jesús L. |date=2019-09-01 |title=Epidemiology of Aichi virus in fecal samples from outpatients with acute gastroenteritis in Northwestern Spain |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1386653219301696 |journal=Journal of Clinical Virology |volume=118 |pages=14–19 |doi=10.1016/j.jcv.2019.07.011 |issn=1386-6532}}</ref>. However, in China, Bangladesh, and Pakistan genotype B is more widely seen in gastroenteritis outbreaks <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pham |first=Ngan Thi Kim |last2=Khamrin |first2=Pattara |last3=Nguyen |first3=Tuan Anh |last4=Kanti |first4=Dey Shuvra |last5=Phan |first5=Tung Gia |last6=Okitsu |first6=Shoko |last7=Ushijima |first7=Hiroshi |date=2007-07 |title=Isolation and Molecular Characterization of Aichi Viruses from Fecal Specimens Collected in Japan, Bangladesh, Thailand, and Vietnam |url=https://journals.asm.org/doi/10.1128/JCM.00525-07 |journal=Journal of Clinical Microbiology |language=en |volume=45 |issue=7 |pages=2287–2288 |doi=10.1128/JCM.00525-07 |issn=0095-1137 |pmc=PMC1932998 |pmid=17522267}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yang |first=Shixing |last2=Zhang |first2=Wen |last3=Shen |first3=Quan |last4=Yang |first4=Zhibiao |last5=Zhu |first5=Jianguo |last6=Cui |first6=Li |last7=Hua |first7=Xiuguo |date=2009-10 |title=Aichi Virus Strains in Children with Gastroenteritis, China |url=http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/15/10/09-0522_article.htm |journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases |volume=15 |issue=10 |pages=1703–1705 |doi=10.3201/eid1510.090522 |issn=1080-6040 |pmc=PMC2866408 |pmid=19861087}}</ref>. However, genotype C is not widely seen to cause human infection and has only been described in one study a fecal sample from a child case of gastroenteritis after a trip to Mali <ref name=":0" /><ref name=":8" />. The VP1 region is used to classify the [[Picornavirus|picornaviruses]] and can also be used to differentiate between aichivirus A genotypes<ref name=":0" />. Some studies have seen more variation in th VP1 region and suggest that this region may be a better region to differentiate between genotypes <ref name=":7" />.

== Environmental Occurrence ==
Aichivirus A can be found in a variety of environmental sources potentially leading to infection through food and water consumption. Aichivirus A causes infection through the [[Fecal–oral route|fecal-oral route]], where contaminated food and water sources are ingested <ref name=":0" />. Some studies suggest using Aichivirus A as a method to detect viral contamination in environmental samples.<ref name=":4" />
[[File:Crassostrea gigas p1040848.jpg|thumb|Aichivirus A can be transmitted through contaminated seafood, such as an oyster.]]

==== Shellfish ====
[[Enteric]] viruses can propagate through [[Bivalve molluscs|bivalve mollusks]] which filter surrounding water for food and retain enteric viruses <ref name=":0" />. Many safety protocols only take into account bacteria and not viruses, which makes [[shellfish]] a [[Disease vector|vector]] for viral transmission <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Polo |first=David |last2=Varela |first2=Miguel F. |last3=Romalde |first3=Jesús L. |date=2015-01-16 |title=Detection and quantification of hepatitis A virus and norovirus in Spanish authorized shellfish harvesting areas |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25462922/ |journal=International Journal of Food Microbiology |volume=193 |pages=43–50 |doi=10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2014.10.007 |issn=1879-3460 |pmid=25462922}}</ref>. Aichivirus A was first detected in an outbreak due to contaminated oysters, and contaminated seafood has been associated with aichivrius A outbreaks worldwide <ref name=":0" />. In a year-long study in Japan on viral detection in clams, 33% of the grocery store samples contained aichivirus A<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hansman |first=Grant S. |last2=Oka |first2=Tomoichiro |last3=Li |first3=Tian-Cheng |last4=Nishio |first4=Osamu |last5=Noda |first5=Mamoru |last6=Takeda |first6=Naokazu |date=2008-08-01 |title=Detection of Human Enteric Viruses in Japanese Clams |url=https://meridian.allenpress.com/jfp/article/71/8/1689/172209/Detection-of-Human-Enteric-Viruses-in-Japanese |journal=Journal of Food Protection |language=en |volume=71 |issue=8 |pages=1689–1695 |doi=10.4315/0362-028X-71.8.1689 |issn=0362-028X}}</ref>.

==== Sewage ====
Aichivirus A has been reported at high rates in [[wastewater]] but was first seen in 2010 <ref name=":9">{{Cite journal |last=Alcalá |first=Ana |last2=Vizzi |first2=Esmeralda |last3=Rodríguez-Díaz |first3=Jesús |last4=Zambrano |first4=José L. |last5=Betancourt |first5=Walter |last6=Liprandi |first6=Ferdinando |date=2010-06-15 |title=Molecular Detection and Characterization of Aichi Viruses in Sewage-Polluted Waters of Venezuela |url=https://journals.asm.org/doi/10.1128/AEM.00501-10 |journal=Applied and Environmental Microbiology |language=en |volume=76 |issue=12 |pages=4113–4115 |doi=10.1128/AEM.00501-10 |issn=0099-2240}}</ref>. [[Wastewater treatment]] cannot get rid of all the viral particles before being discharged into the environment<ref name=":0" />. Due to the stability of aichivirus in sewage before and after treatment, aichivirus A is likely a human fecal pollutant indicator<ref name=":0" />. Aichivirus A has been detected in wastewater in America, Europe, Africa, and Asia<ref name=":0" />. In one study, samples of treated sewage contained a 91.7% prevalence of aichivirus A <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kitajima |first=Masaaki |last2=Haramoto |first2=Eiji |last3=Phanuwan |first3=Chanetta |last4=Katayama |first4=Hiroyuki |date=2011-03-15 |title=Prevalence and Genetic Diversity of Aichi Viruses in Wastewater and River Water in Japan |url=https://journals.asm.org/doi/10.1128/AEM.02328-10 |journal=Applied and Environmental Microbiology |language=en |volume=77 |issue=6 |pages=2184–2187 |doi=10.1128/AEM.02328-10 |issn=0099-2240 |pmc=PMC3067340 |pmid=21257803}}</ref>.

==== River Water and Ground Water ====
River water and [[Groundwater|ground water]] can be a reservoir for aichivirus A, due to viruses not being removed during the natural filtration cycle <ref name=":0" />. Aichivirus A was first studied in river water in [[Venezuela]] in 2010 with detection in 45% of samples<ref name=":9" />. Aichivirus A has since been detected in water sources worldwide, including in tap water and ground water in America <ref name=":0" />.

== Research Findings and Detection Methods ==
Under an [[electron microscope]], Aichivirus A appears as a small, round virus making it hard to distinguish it from other viruses with a similar morphology<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last=Yamashita |first=T. |last2=Sakae |first2=K. |last3=Ishihara |first3=Y. |last4=Isomura |first4=S. |last5=Utagawa |first5=E. |date=1993-11 |title=Prevalence of newly isolated, cytopathic small round virus (Aichi strain) in Japan |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8263178/ |journal=Journal of Clinical Microbiology |volume=31 |issue=11 |pages=2938–2943 |doi=10.1128/jcm.31.11.2938-2943.1993 |issn=0095-1137 |pmid=8263178}}</ref>. Under electron microscopy, a canyon-like valley is seen on the surface of the capsid, likely where receptor binding occurs for entry <ref name=":0" />. The viral particle is stable in acidic conditions until a pH of 2 and remains stable under known experimental methods to disrupt the viral particle <ref name=":11">{{Cite journal |last=Yamashita |first=Teruo |last2=Sakae |first2=Kenji |last3=Tsuzuki |first3=Hideaki |last4=Suzuki |first4=Yasumoto |last5=Ishikawa |first5=Naohisa |last6=Takeda |first6=Naokazu |last7=Miyamura |first7=Tatsuo |last8=Yamazaki |first8=Shudo |date=1998-10 |title=Complete Nucleotide Sequence and Genetic Organization of Aichi Virus, a Distinct Member of the Picornaviridae Associated with Acute Gastroenteritis in Humans |url=https://journals.asm.org/doi/10.1128/JVI.72.10.8408-8412.1998 |journal=Journal of Virology |language=en |volume=72 |issue=10 |pages=8408–8412 |doi=10.1128/JVI.72.10.8408-8412.1998 |issn=0022-538X |pmc=PMC110230 |pmid=9733894}}</ref>. These methods include heat, hydrostatic pressure, and detergent conditions <ref name=":11" /><ref name=":0" />. In human cell lines like HeLa, a [[cytopathic effect]] is not seen, however a cytopathic effect is seen in BSC-1 cell lines and [[Vero cell|Vero Cells]]<ref name=":0" />.

An [[ELISA|enzyme-linked immunoabsorbant assay]] (ELISA) has been developed to detect aichivirus A antigens<ref name=":6" />. Reverse transcription-RNA polymerase chain reaction is also widely used in aichivirus research for identification and genotype differentiation<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yamashita |first=T. |last2=Sugiyama |first2=M. |last3=Tsuzuki |first3=H. |last4=Sakae |first4=K. |last5=Suzuki |first5=Y. |last6=Miyazaki |first6=Y. |date=2000-08 |title=Application of a reverse transcription-PCR for identification and differentiation of Aichi virus, a new member of the Picornavirus family associated with gastroenteritis in humans |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10921958/ |journal=Journal of Clinical Microbiology |volume=38 |issue=8 |pages=2955–2961 |doi=10.1128/JCM.38.8.2955-2961.2000 |issn=0095-1137 |pmid=10921958}}</ref>. A [[loop-mediated isothermal amplification]] (LAMP) assay has been created for aichivirus A to be used in water samples<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Lee |first=J. Y. |last2=Kim |first2=J. H. |last3=Rho |first3=J. Y. |date=2019-09 |title=Development of Rapid and Specific Detection for the Human Aichivirus A Using the Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification from Water Samples |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s12088-019-00803-3 |journal=Indian Journal of Microbiology |language=en |volume=59 |issue=3 |pages=375–378 |doi=10.1007/s12088-019-00803-3 |issn=0046-8991 |pmc=PMC6646635 |pmid=31388217}}</ref>. The LAMP assay allows for a rapid and specific detection of aichivirus A <ref name=":12" />. Reverse transcription-quantitative PCR ([[Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction|RT-qPCR]]) is also widely used for detection and to determine viral numbers <ref name=":0" />.


== References ==
== References ==
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{{Reflist|2}}


{{Taxonbar|from=Q18205171}}


[[Category:Picornaviridae]]


[[Category:Wikipedia Student Program]]
{{virus-stub}}

Revision as of 00:53, 13 November 2023

Aichivirus A
Virus classification Edit this classification
(unranked): Virus
Realm: Riboviria
Kingdom: Orthornavirae
Phylum: Pisuviricota
Class: Pisoniviricetes
Order: Picornavirales
Family: Picornaviridae
Genus: Kobuvirus
Species:
Aichivirus A

Aichivirus A formerly Aichi virus (AiV)[1] belongs to the genus Kobuvirus in the family Picornaviridae[2]. Six species are apart of the genus Kobuvirus, Aichivirus A-F[3]. Within Aichivirus A, there are six different types including human Aichi virus, canine kobuvirus, murine kobuvirus, Kathmandu sewage kobuvirus, roller kobuvirus, and feline kobuvirus[3].Three different genotypes are found in human Aichi virus, represented as genotype A, B, and C [3].

AiV is a non-enveloped positive sense ssRNA virus with icosahedral morphology[3]. Aichivirus A was originally identified after a 1989 outbreak of acute gastroenteritis in the Aichi Prefecture that was linked to raw oyster consumption per genetic analysis[1][4][5]. Human Aichi Virus can cause gastroenteritis with symptoms arising such as vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, nausea, and fever [3][6].

Aichivirus A can be found in a variety of environmental areas including sewage, groundwater, river water, and shellfish[2]. Aichivirus A is present in many world regions, and in sometimes greater abundance than other well-known enteric viruses[2]. Aichiviruses have been seen in Asia, Europe, South America, and Africa[2].It has since been isolated in populations of Finnish children,[7] Pakistani children, and Japanese travelers.[8] The widespread nature of aichivirus A can be seen in the high percentage of AiV antibodies in adult human populations found in several countries [3].

Transmission occurs through the fecal-oral route[2]. After the virus is replicated in the gastrointestinal tract, the pathogen can be found in fecal samples of infected individuals[2]. Water and shellfish contaminated with human sewage can propagate aichivirus A[2].

Discovery

Location of Aichi Prefecture in Japan. The location of the first Aichivirus outbreak.


Aichivirus A was first characterized after an outbreak of gastroenteritis in the Aichi Prefecture of Japan, this region is where the name of the virus was derived from[5]. Fecal samples from infected individuals were taken and transported to a lab where they described the novel virus[5].These viral particles were 30nm in diameter, a spherical shape, and cytopathic for BSC-1 cells (kidney cells of African green monkey)[3] [5]. The infection was attributed to contaminated raw oyster found in vinegar[5].

Aichivirus A has been seen and described across many Asian countries, however the first appearance of aichivirus outside of this region was isolated in Europe and South America in 2006[9]. Through genetic analysis of isolates from Brazil and Germany, the nucleotide sequences were found to be similar to known Aichivirus nucleotide sequences[9]. Notably, the German strain appeared to be of genotype A and the Brazil strain appeared to be of genotype B [9]. Screening in Germany for antibodies to Aichivirus displayed a seroprevalence of 76%, which is comparable to seroprevalence in Japan [9]. Therefore, European infection with Aichivirus is as common as it is in Asia [9].

Human Infection

Positive Sense Single-Stranded RNA Viral Mechanism

Viral Propagation in Human Host Cells

Aichivirus A enters host cells through receptor-mediated endocytosis, a cellular uptake mechanism[3]. After viral attachment and entry, the virion particle is uncoated releasing the genome into the cytoplasm[3]. Similar to other viruses within the Picornaviridae family, viral replication and translation occurs in the cytoplasm[10]. The positive sense ssRNA is directly translated into protein by the host cell ribosomes, while some of the ssRNA is used as a template to replicate the viral genome. Capsid proteins, L protein, nonstructural proteins, and stable intermediates are produced after the polyprotein is processed. Protein production is directly related to synthesis of plus-strand RNA replication complex [10][3]. The plus-strand RNA genome is packaged into the assembled viral particle, along with VpG (Viral genomic protein)[3]. A completed viral particle has 60 capsid proteins copies made up of 12 pentamers [3]. The pentamer is made up by the 5S subunit composed of VP0, VP1, and VP3 protein aggregates [3]. After the viral particle is assembled, it is released from host cells by cell lysis, making Aichivirus A a lytic virus [3][11].

Characteristics of Human Infection

Most aichivirus A infection in humans are mild, asymptomatic infections lasting between 48-72 hours[3]. However, it can develop into the common symptoms of gastroenteritis: fever, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain[12][3]. Viral replication in the gastrointestinal tract damages the enterocyte layer in the intestinal villi interfering with water reabsorption [12]. This can lead to the symptoms appearing with infection.

Aichivirus A can become an opportunistic pathogen in those with HIV and is seen in high levels in the feces of those with HIV[13][14]. Aichivirus A is also suspected as an opportunistic pathogan in those with X-linked agammaglobulinemia.[14] Aichivirus is an emerging pathogen in those with B-cell deficiencies, however there is no explanation why[14] In patients with primary immune deficiencies, chronic aichivirus infection can cause immunodysregulation[15]. Human aichivirus was deemed to effect multiple organs leading to the clinical symptom presentation[15]. The aichivirus genome was detected in symptomatic patients and in infected organs, while was not seen in asymptomatic individuals [15]. Notably, in Japan there is a correlation with aichivirus A infection and lower respiratory tract disease [16].

The Viral Genome

Picornavirus Genome Organization (Aichivirus A is a member of the Picornavirus family).


The RNA genome of AiV A is composed of 8280 nucleotides. Along the 5' end of the RNA, there is an untranslated region consisting of 744 nucleotides, a VpG protein, and an internal ribosomal entry site (IRES). Following the 5' untranslated region, the open reading frame is approximately 7.3kB consisting of 2432 amino acids. The L protein, leader peptide, is the first protein translated within the polypeptide, followed by the structural proteins, and then nonstructural proteins. Cleavage into the different proteins occurs by viral proteases[17]. The capsid proteins are made up of three segments in the RNA: VP0, VP3, and VP1 [3][17]. These capsid proteins together are known as the P1 region on the genome[3]. The encoded capsid proteins form a protomer that form into 12 pentamers during self-assembly[17] [18]. X-ray crystallography of human aichi virus virion structure determined that the VP3 knob structure and VP0 surface loop are smaller compared to other viruses in picornaviruses [17]. P2 and P3 are the regions of the RNA genome that are the non-structural proteins involved in replication control[17][19]. For example, the protein 3D within the P3 region encodes for the viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase used in replication[20]. The 3B protein also in the P3 region encodes for the VpG protein, which is important promoting replication. Following the P2 and P3 region, there is a 3' untranslated region of about 237 nucleotides and a poly-A tail [3]

Genotypic Differences in Human Aichivirus

Differences at the 3CD nonstructural protein junction in the viral genome results in distinct genotypic differences[21][3]. When comparing the junction between the C-terminus of the 3C region and the N-terminus of the 3D region, three distinct genotypic types are seen [3]. In studies, there appeared to be a geographical distribution to the genotypes. In some countries genotype B is prevalent, while in others genotype A dominates. In Finland and Spain genotype A was more prevalent[7][22]. However, in China, Bangladesh, and Pakistan genotype B is more widely seen in gastroenteritis outbreaks [23][24]. However, genotype C is not widely seen to cause human infection and has only been described in one study a fecal sample from a child case of gastroenteritis after a trip to Mali [3][21]. The VP1 region is used to classify the picornaviruses and can also be used to differentiate between aichivirus A genotypes[3]. Some studies have seen more variation in th VP1 region and suggest that this region may be a better region to differentiate between genotypes [9].

Environmental Occurrence

Aichivirus A can be found in a variety of environmental sources potentially leading to infection through food and water consumption. Aichivirus A causes infection through the fecal-oral route, where contaminated food and water sources are ingested [3]. Some studies suggest using Aichivirus A as a method to detect viral contamination in environmental samples.[2]

Aichivirus A can be transmitted through contaminated seafood, such as an oyster.

Shellfish

Enteric viruses can propagate through bivalve mollusks which filter surrounding water for food and retain enteric viruses [3]. Many safety protocols only take into account bacteria and not viruses, which makes shellfish a vector for viral transmission [25]. Aichivirus A was first detected in an outbreak due to contaminated oysters, and contaminated seafood has been associated with aichivrius A outbreaks worldwide [3]. In a year-long study in Japan on viral detection in clams, 33% of the grocery store samples contained aichivirus A[26].

Sewage

Aichivirus A has been reported at high rates in wastewater but was first seen in 2010 [27]. Wastewater treatment cannot get rid of all the viral particles before being discharged into the environment[3]. Due to the stability of aichivirus in sewage before and after treatment, aichivirus A is likely a human fecal pollutant indicator[3]. Aichivirus A has been detected in wastewater in America, Europe, Africa, and Asia[3]. In one study, samples of treated sewage contained a 91.7% prevalence of aichivirus A [28].

River Water and Ground Water

River water and ground water can be a reservoir for aichivirus A, due to viruses not being removed during the natural filtration cycle [3]. Aichivirus A was first studied in river water in Venezuela in 2010 with detection in 45% of samples[27]. Aichivirus A has since been detected in water sources worldwide, including in tap water and ground water in America [3].

Research Findings and Detection Methods

Under an electron microscope, Aichivirus A appears as a small, round virus making it hard to distinguish it from other viruses with a similar morphology[16]. Under electron microscopy, a canyon-like valley is seen on the surface of the capsid, likely where receptor binding occurs for entry [3]. The viral particle is stable in acidic conditions until a pH of 2 and remains stable under known experimental methods to disrupt the viral particle [29]. These methods include heat, hydrostatic pressure, and detergent conditions [29][3]. In human cell lines like HeLa, a cytopathic effect is not seen, however a cytopathic effect is seen in BSC-1 cell lines and Vero Cells[3].

An enzyme-linked immunoabsorbant assay (ELISA) has been developed to detect aichivirus A antigens[16]. Reverse transcription-RNA polymerase chain reaction is also widely used in aichivirus research for identification and genotype differentiation[30]. A loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assay has been created for aichivirus A to be used in water samples[31]. The LAMP assay allows for a rapid and specific detection of aichivirus A [31]. Reverse transcription-quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) is also widely used for detection and to determine viral numbers [3].

References

  1. ^ a b Carmona-Vicente N, Buesa J, Brown PA, Merga JY, Darby AC, Stavisky J, et al. (June 2013). "Phylogeny and prevalence of kobuviruses in dogs and cats in the UK". Veterinary Microbiology. 164 (3–4): 246–52. doi:10.1016/j.vetmic.2013.02.014. PMC 7127238. PMID 23490561.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h Kitajima M, Gerba CP (May 2015). "Aichi virus 1: environmental occurrence and behavior". Pathogens. 4 (2): 256–268. doi:10.3390/pathogens4020256. PMC 4493473. PMID 25996404.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai Rivadulla, Enrique; Romalde, Jesús L. (2020-04-27). "A Comprehensive Review on Human Aichi Virus". Virologica Sinica. 35 (5): 501–516. doi:10.1007/s12250-020-00222-5. ISSN 1674-0769. PMC 7223127. PMID 32342286.
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  10. ^ a b Bergelson, Jeffrey M.; Coyne, Carolyn B. (2013), Pöhlmann, Stefan; Simmons, Graham (eds.), "Picornavirus Entry", Viral Entry into Host Cells, Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, New York, NY: Springer, pp. 24–41, doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-7651-1_2, ISBN 978-1-4614-7651-1, retrieved 2023-10-30
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  12. ^ a b Carter, M.J. (2005-06). "Enterically infecting viruses: pathogenicity, transmission and significance for food and waterborne infection". Journal of Applied Microbiology. 98 (6): 1354–1380. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2672.2005.02635.x. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  13. ^ Oude Munnink, Bas B.; Canuti, Marta; Deijs, Martin; de Vries, Michel; Jebbink, Maarten F.; Rebers, Sjoerd; Molenkamp, Richard; van Hemert, Formijn J.; Chung, Kevin; Cotten, Matthew; Snijders, Fransje; Sol, Cees J. A.; van der Hoek, Lia (2014-01-13). "Unexplained diarrhoea in HIV-1 infected individuals". BMC infectious diseases. 14: 22. doi:10.1186/1471-2334-14-22. ISSN 1471-2334. PMC 3925291. PMID 24410947.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  14. ^ a b c Meyts, Isabelle; Bucciol, Giorgia; Jansen, Katrien; Wollants, Elke; Breuer, Judith (2023-04-01). "Aichivirus: an Emerging Pathogen in Patients with Primary and Secondary B-Cell Deficiency". Journal of Clinical Immunology. 43 (3): 532–535. doi:10.1007/s10875-022-01410-6. ISSN 1573-2592.
  15. ^ a b c Fourgeaud, Jacques; Lecuit, Mathilde M; Pérot, Philippe; Bruneau, Julie; Regnault, Beatrice; Da Rocha, Nicolas; Bessaud, Mael; Picard, Capucine; Jeziorski, Éric; Fournier, Benjamin; Levy, Romain; Marçais, Ambroise; Blanche, Stéphane; Frange, Pierre; Fischer, Alain (2023-04-20). "Chronic Aichi Virus Infection As a Cause of Long-Lasting Multiorgan Involvement in Patients With Primary Immune Deficiencies". Clinical Infectious Diseases. 77 (4): 620–628. doi:10.1093/cid/ciad237. ISSN 1058-4838.
  16. ^ a b c Yamashita, T.; Sakae, K.; Ishihara, Y.; Isomura, S.; Utagawa, E. (1993-11). "Prevalence of newly isolated, cytopathic small round virus (Aichi strain) in Japan". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 31 (11): 2938–2943. doi:10.1128/jcm.31.11.2938-2943.1993. ISSN 0095-1137. PMID 8263178. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  17. ^ a b c d e Sabin, Charles; Füzik, Tibor; Škubník, Karel; Pálková, Lenka; Lindberg, A. Michael; Plevka, Pavel (2016-12). López, S. (ed.). "Structure of Aichi Virus 1 and Its Empty Particle: Clues to Kobuvirus Genome Release Mechanism". Journal of Virology. 90 (23): 10800–10810. doi:10.1128/JVI.01601-16. ISSN 0022-538X. PMC 5110158. PMID 27681122. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
  18. ^ Palmenberg, A C (1982-12). "In vitro synthesis and assembly of picornaviral capsid intermediate structures". Journal of Virology. 44 (3): 900–906. doi:10.1128/jvi.44.3.900-906.1982. ISSN 0022-538X. PMC 256349. PMID 6294338. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
  19. ^ Zhu, Ling; Wang, Xiangxi; Ren, Jingshan; Kotecha, Abhay; Walter, Thomas S.; Yuan, Shuai; Yamashita, Teruo; Tuthill, Tobias J.; Fry, Elizabeth E.; Rao, Zihe; Stuart, David I. (2016-09-05). "Structure of human Aichi virus and implications for receptor binding". Nature Microbiology. 1 (11): 1–6. doi:10.1038/nmicrobiol.2016.150. ISSN 2058-5276.
  20. ^ Yamashita, Teruo; Sakae, Kenji (2003). "VI, 3. Molecular biology and epidemiology of Aichi virus and other diarrhoeogenic enteroviruses". Perspectives in Medical Virology. 9: 645–657. doi:10.1016/S0168-7069(03)09040-2. ISSN 0168-7069. PMC 7172506. PMID 32336843.
  21. ^ a b Ambert-Balay, K.; Lorrot, M.; Bon, F.; Giraudon, H.; Kaplon, J.; Wolfer, M.; Lebon, P.; Gendrel, D.; Pothier, P. (2008-04). "Prevalence and genetic diversity of Aichi virus strains in stool samples from community and hospitalized patients". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 46 (4): 1252–1258. doi:10.1128/JCM.02140-07. ISSN 1098-660X. PMC 2292896. PMID 18256215. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  22. ^ Rivadulla, Enrique; Varela, Miguel F.; Romalde, Jesús L. (2019-09-01). "Epidemiology of Aichi virus in fecal samples from outpatients with acute gastroenteritis in Northwestern Spain". Journal of Clinical Virology. 118: 14–19. doi:10.1016/j.jcv.2019.07.011. ISSN 1386-6532.
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