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Expanded Writings section. Added details of Bell's specific authorship of Treasury of Human Inheritance. Expanded biographical details and details of key works in human genetics. Added a new paragraph outlining Bell's conditions of employment. Fixed a dead link.
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==Biography==
==Biography==
She attended [[Girton College]] in Cambridge and took the Mathematical Tripos exam in 1901.<ref>[[Marilyn Bailey Ogilvie|Ogilvie, Marilyn Bailey]] and [[Joy Harvey]], ''The Biographical Dictionary of Women in Science: Pioneering Lives from Ancient Times to the Mid 20th Century'' Routledge (2000)</ref> But because women could not officially receive degrees from Oxford or Cambridge, she was awarded a master's degree at [[Trinity College, Dublin|Trinity College]], [[Dublin]] for her work investigating [[solar parallax]] at [[Cambridge Observatory]].<ref>Stratton, F.J.M. "The History of the Cambridge Observatories" Annals of the Solar Physics Observatory, Cambridge Vol. I (1949)</ref> In 1908, she moved to [[University College London]] and obtained a position there as an assistant in [[statistics]].
She attended [[Girton College]] in Cambridge and took the Mathematical Tripos exam in 1901.<ref>[[Marilyn Bailey Ogilvie|Ogilvie, Marilyn Bailey]] and [[Joy Harvey]], ''The Biographical Dictionary of Women in Science: Pioneering Lives from Ancient Times to the Mid 20th Century'' Routledge (2000)</ref> But because women could not officially receive degrees from Oxford or Cambridge, she was awarded a master's degree at [[Trinity College, Dublin|Trinity College]], [[Dublin]] for her work investigating [[solar parallax]] at [[Cambridge Observatory]].<ref>Stratton, F.J.M. "The History of the Cambridge Observatories" Annals of the Solar Physics Observatory, Cambridge Vol. I (1949)</ref> In 1908, she moved to [[University College London]] and secured a position there as assistant to [[Karl Pearson]] (1857–1936), professor of applied mathematics, director of the Galton Laboratory for National Eugenics at University College, London <ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Jones |first=Greta |title=Bell, Julia (1879–1979), geneticist |url=https://www.oxforddnb.com/display/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-38514 |access-date=2024-02-06 |website=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |language=en |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/38514}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web |title=Julia Bell {{!}} RCP Museum |url=https://history.rcplondon.ac.uk/inspiring-physicians/julia-bell |access-date=2024-02-06 |website=history.rcplondon.ac.uk}}</ref> and one of the founders of modern [[statistics]]. Bell's predecessor as assistant to Karl Pearson was [[Alice Lee (mathematician)|Alice Lee]] who had resigned due to ill-health.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Love |first=Rosaleen |date=1979-03 |title=‘Alice in Eugenics-Land’: Feminism and Eugenics in the scientific careers of Alice Lee and Ethel Elderton |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00033797900200451 |journal=Annals of Science |language=en |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=145–158 |doi=10.1080/00033797900200451 |issn=0003-3790}}</ref>


Bell's position as assistant to Karl Pearson was funded by [[Francis Galton]]'s endowment to University College London to support eugenics research.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cain |first=Joe |date=2019-05-24 |title=Eugenics Money at UCL from Francis Galton |url=https://profjoecain.net/eugenics-money-ucl-university-college-london/ |access-date=2024-02-06 |website=Professor Joe Cain |language=en-GB}}</ref> Pearson described the role of his assistant as "a post well suited to a woman living with her family in London and keen on scientific work" because the assistant's salary of £100 a year was unattractive to men compared with the annual salary of £250 year paid for the position of Galton Laboratory Research Fellow.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Love |first=Rosaleen |date=1979 |title=‘Alice in Eugenics-Land’: Feminism and Eugenics in the scientific careers of Alice Lee and Ethel Elderton |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00033797900200451 |journal=Annals of Science |language=en |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=145–158 |doi=10.1080/00033797900200451 |issn=0003-3790}}</ref> Bell's remuneration for her work as Pearson's assistant was equivalent to the pay of a non-academic part-time clerk at this time.<ref name=":1" /> Like other women scientists of the period, Bell's early professional life throughout the 1920s was defined by low pay and short-term research contracts.<ref name=":0" />
Her [[mentor]] was [[Karl Pearson]] (1857–1936),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://munksroll.rcplondon.ac.uk/Biography/Details/346|title=Munks Roll Details for Julia Bell|website=munksroll.rcplondon.ac.uk}}</ref> one of the founders of modern [[statistics]], who in 1914 asked her to augment the expertise of the Galton Laboratory staff by taking a degree in medicine.<ref>{{Cite web |title=La Bell Époque: A Century of Julia Bell (part 1) {{!}} RCP Museum |url=https://history.rcplondon.ac.uk/blog/la-bell-epoque-century-julia-bell-part-1 |access-date=2024-01-26 |website=history.rcplondon.ac.uk}}</ref> She studied at the [[London School of Medicine for Women]] ([[Royal Free Hospital]]). She qualified in 1922 and was elected a Fellow of the [[Royal College of Physicians]] in 1938.


In 1914, [[Karl Pearson]] asked Bell to augment the expertise of the Galton Laboratory staff by taking a degree in medicine.<ref>{{Cite web |title=La Bell Époque: A Century of Julia Bell (part 1) {{!}} RCP Museum |url=https://history.rcplondon.ac.uk/blog/la-bell-epoque-century-julia-bell-part-1 |access-date=2024-01-26 |website=history.rcplondon.ac.uk}}</ref> Bell's decision to train as a doctor was informed by her own interest in the more observational aspects of the study of heredity.<ref name=":0" /> She studied at the [[London School of Medicine for Women]] ([[Royal Free Hospital]]) and qualified MRCS LRCP in 1920, was awarded membership of the Royal College of Physicians and made Galton research fellow under the [https://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/record?catid=121&catln=1 Medical Research Council] in 1926, and was elected Fellow of the [[Royal College of Physicians]] in 1938.<ref name=":0" /> <ref>{{Cite web |title=Julia Bell {{!}} RCP Museum |url=https://history.rcplondon.ac.uk/inspiring-physicians/julia-bell |access-date=2024-02-06 |website=history.rcplondon.ac.uk}}</ref>
⚫
Working as a member of the permanent staff of the [[Medical Research Council (UK)|Medical Research Council]] at the [[Galton Laboratory]], University College, Julia Bell did pioneering work in documenting the familial nature of many diseases. She wrote most of the sections in a unique series known as ''The Treasury of Human Inheritance'' published between 1909 and 1956, from The Galton Lab. Bell's "combination of mathematical training, genetic knowledge and clinical expertise yielded numerous important insights into human inheritance first appearing in the ''Treasury''," Harper noted.<ref>[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=15735957&dopt=Abstract Julia Bell and the Treasury of Human Inheritance] by Peter S. Harper.</ref> Julia Bell's ''Treasury of Human Inheritance'' "remains a valuable scientific as well as an historical record of the genetics of a range of important inherited disorders."


In 1932, Bell joined the genetics committee of the Medical Research Council and worked as a permanent member of the scientific staff of the Medical Research Council 1933-1944.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vignette: pioneering geneticist, Julia Bell (1879-1979) |url=https://www.mddus.com/resources/publications/publications-library/insight/spring-2012/vignette-julia-bell |access-date=2024-02-06 |website=MDDUS |language=en}}</ref> Her subsequent work led to her receiving the [[Weldon Memorial Prize|Weldon memorial prize]] and medal for biometry awarded by Oxford University in 1941.
⚫
In 1937 Julia Bell published a landmark article with [[J. B. S. Haldane]] which reported a [[Genetic linkage|linkage]] between the [[gene]]s for [[colourblindness]] and [[haemophilia]] on the [[X chromosome]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bell |first1=J. |last2=Haldane |first2=J. B. S. |title=The Linkage between the Genes for Colour-Blindness and Haemophilia in Man |journal=[[Proceedings of the Royal Society B]] |volume=123 |issue=831 |pages=119–150 |year=1937 |doi=10.1098/rspb.1937.0046 |bibcode=1937RSPSB.123..119B |doi-access=free }}</ref> This discovery was a key step toward the mapping of the human genome.


== Writings ==
Julia Bell kept working actively for many years. At age 82 she wrote an original article on [[rubella]] and [[pregnancy]]; she retired at age 86; she kept in touch with genetics until her death at the age of 100.
Julia Bell's early output at the Galton Laboratory included a multi-part series titled ''A study of the long bones of the English skeleton,'' co-authored with Karl Pearson in 1917 and 1919.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Pearson |first=Karl |url=http://archive.org/details/galtonlab030 |title=A study of the long bones of the English skeleton. Part I |last2=Bell |first2=Julia |date=1917 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |others=The UCL Institute of Education}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite book |last=Pearson |first=Karl |url=http://archive.org/details/galtonlab031 |title=A study of the long bones of the English skeleton. Part I, section II |last2=Bell |first2=Julia |date=1919 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |others=The UCL Institute of Education}}</ref> Other women working at the Galton Laboratory and referenced as contributors to this work include: E. Augusta Jones (formerly Secretary to [[Francis Galton]] <ref>{{Cite web |title=Galton Papers, GALTON/2/10/9/20 |url=https://archives.ucl.ac.uk/CalmView/Record.aspx?src=CalmView.Catalog&id=GALTON/2/10/9/20&AddBasket=GALTON/2/10/9/20 |access-date=2024-02-06 |website=UCL Special Collections}}</ref>), mathematician [[Eleanor Pairman]], Mary Seeger, microscopist Marion Radford<ref>{{Cite thesis |title=A place of teaching and research: University College London and the origins of the research university in Britain 1890-1914 |url=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10101355/ |publisher=UCL (University College London) |date=2001 |degree=Doctoral |first=Mark |last=Pendleton}}</ref>, Eva Bramley Moore, mathematician [[Alice Lee (mathematician)|Alice Lee]], and Miss E.Y. Thomson.<ref name=":2" /> The work was part-funded by a donation from H. Gertrude Jones, a former Secretary to the Galton Laboratory.<ref name=":2" /> Pearson and Bell's analysis of the skeletal remains of different human populations and primates sought to identify "racial differences in man",<ref name=":2" /> informed by the pseudo-science of [[eugenics]] originally formulated by [[Francis Galton]] whose bequest had funded the Galton Laboratory.<ref>{{Cite web |last=UCL |date=2021-11-18 |title=Our Early History |url=https://www.ucl.ac.uk/statistics/our-early-history-1 |access-date=2024-02-06 |website=Statistical Science |language=en}}</ref>


Working as a member of the permanent staff of the [[Medical Research Council (UK)|Medical Research Council]] at the [[Galton Laboratory]] (renamed the Department of Human Genetics and Biometry in 1966), Julia Bell went on to do pioneering work in documenting the familial nature of many diseases.
Besides the [[Martin–Bell syndrome]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Martin |first1=J. P. |name-list-style=amp |last2=Bell |first2=J. |title=A pedigree of mental defect showing sex-linkage |journal=[[J. Neurol. Psychiatry]] |volume=6 |year=1943 |issue=3–4 |pages=154–157 |doi=10.1136/jnnp.6.3-4.154 |pmc=1090429 |pmid=21611430}}</ref> now known as the [[fragile X syndrome]], Julia Bell's name is associated with five forms of [[brachydactyly]].

⚫
Bell wrote most of the sections in the unique series ''The Treasury of Human Inheritance'' published by The Galton Laboratory between 1909 and 1956.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Treasury of human inheritance / edited by Karl Pearson, R.A. Fisher, L.S. Penrose. |url=https://wellcomecollection.org/works/pe2s8c7d |access-date=2024-02-06 |website=Wellcome Collection |language=en}}</ref> She was sole or lead author for all sections of Volume II: ''Nettleship Memorial Volume on Anomalies and Diseases of the Eye'' (1933), Volume IV: ''Nervous Diseases and Muscular Dystrophies'' (1948), and Volume V: ''On Hereditary Digital Anomalies'' (1951–58).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Treasury of Human Inheritance (1909-1958) {{!}} Eugenics Laboratory |url=https://profjoecain.net/publications-eugenics-laboratory/treasury-human-inheritance-eugenics-laboratory/ |access-date=2024-02-06 |website=Professor Joe Cain |language=en-GB}}</ref> Bell's "combination of mathematical training, genetic knowledge and clinical expertise yielded numerous important insights into human inheritance first appearing in the ''Treasury''," Harper noted.<ref>[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=15735957&dopt=Abstract Julia Bell and the Treasury of Human Inheritance] by Peter S. Harper.</ref> Julia Bell's ''Treasury of Human Inheritance'' "remains a valuable scientific as well as an historical record of the genetics of a range of important inherited disorders."

⚫
In 1937, Julia Bell published a landmark article with [[J. B. S. Haldane]] which reported a [[Genetic linkage|linkage]] between the [[gene]]s for [[colourblindness]] and [[haemophilia]] on the [[X chromosome]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bell |first1=J. |last2=Haldane |first2=J. B. S. |title=The Linkage between the Genes for Colour-Blindness and Haemophilia in Man |journal=[[Proceedings of the Royal Society B]] |volume=123 |issue=831 |pages=119–150 |year=1937 |doi=10.1098/rspb.1937.0046 |bibcode=1937RSPSB.123..119B |doi-access=free }}</ref> This discovery was a key step toward the mapping of the human genome.

In 1943, Bell co-authored with [[James Purdon Martin]] a paper on the link between a form of intellectual disability in children and the X-chromosomes of the parents, with the condition subsequently being named [[Martin–Bell syndrome]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Martin |first1=J. P. |name-list-style=amp |last2=Bell |first2=J. |title=A pedigree of mental defect showing sex-linkage |journal=[[J. Neurol. Psychiatry]] |volume=6 |year=1943 |issue=3–4 |pages=154–157 |doi=10.1136/jnnp.6.3-4.154 |pmc=1090429 |pmid=21611430}}</ref> <ref name=":3">{{Cite web |last=King |first=Jesse |title=Julia Bell (1879-1979) {{!}} Embryo Project Encyclopedia |url=https://embryo.asu.edu/pages/julia-bell-1879-1979 |access-date=2024-02-06 |website=Arizona State University. School of Life Sciences. Center for Biology and Society. Embryo Project Encyclopedia. |issn=1940-5030}}</ref>. It is now known as [[fragile X syndrome]].

Julia Bell's 1951 work ‘On Brachydactyly and Symphalangism’ in Volume V: ''On Hereditary Digital Anomalies'' (1951–58) for ''The Treasury of Human Inheritance'' series was foundational for later research into the medical syndrome [[brachydactyly]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Temtamy |first=Samia A. |last2=Aglan |first2=Mona S. |date=2008-06-13 |title=Brachydactyly |url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1750-1172-3-15 |journal=Orphanet Journal of Rare Diseases |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=15 |doi=10.1186/1750-1172-3-15 |issn=1750-1172}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pitt |first=P. |last2=Williams |first2=I. |date=1985-06 |title=A new brachydactyly syndrome with similarities to Julia Bell types B and E |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4009643/ |journal=Journal of Medical Genetics |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=202–204 |doi=10.1136/jmg.22.3.202 |issn=0022-2593 |pmc=1049425 |pmid=4009643}}</ref>

Julia Bell kept working actively for many years. At age 82 and still working for the Galton Laboratory, she published "On [[rubella]] in [[pregnancy]]" in ''The British Medical Journal''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bell |first=Julia |date=1959-03-14 |title=On Rubella in Pregnancy |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1993148/ |journal=British Medical Journal |volume=1 |issue=5123 |pages=686–688 |issn=0007-1447 |pmc=1993148 |pmid=13629090}}</ref> <ref name=":3" /> She retired at age 86; she kept in touch with genetics until her death at the age of 100.


==References==
==References==

Revision as of 15:17, 6 February 2024

For the British author, see Julia Bell (author).
Not to be confused with Julie Bell.

Julia Bell
Born(1879-01-28)28 January 1879
Sherwood, Nottinghamshire, England
Died26 April 1979(1979-04-26) (aged 100)
London, England
Alma materLondon School of Medicine for Women
AwardsWeldon Memorial Prize (1941)
Scientific career
FieldsGenetics
InstitutionsUniversity College London
Academic advisorsKarl Pearson

Julia Bell (28 January 1879 – 26 April 1979) was a pioneering English human geneticist.[1]

Biography

She attended Girton College in Cambridge and took the Mathematical Tripos exam in 1901.[2] But because women could not officially receive degrees from Oxford or Cambridge, she was awarded a master's degree at Trinity College, Dublin for her work investigating solar parallax at Cambridge Observatory.[3] In 1908, she moved to University College London and secured a position there as assistant to Karl Pearson (1857–1936), professor of applied mathematics, director of the Galton Laboratory for National Eugenics at University College, London [4] [5] and one of the founders of modern statistics. Bell's predecessor as assistant to Karl Pearson was Alice Lee who had resigned due to ill-health.[6]

Bell's position as assistant to Karl Pearson was funded by Francis Galton's endowment to University College London to support eugenics research.[7] Pearson described the role of his assistant as "a post well suited to a woman living with her family in London and keen on scientific work" because the assistant's salary of £100 a year was unattractive to men compared with the annual salary of £250 year paid for the position of Galton Laboratory Research Fellow.[8] Bell's remuneration for her work as Pearson's assistant was equivalent to the pay of a non-academic part-time clerk at this time.[8] Like other women scientists of the period, Bell's early professional life throughout the 1920s was defined by low pay and short-term research contracts.[4]

In 1914, Karl Pearson asked Bell to augment the expertise of the Galton Laboratory staff by taking a degree in medicine.[9] Bell's decision to train as a doctor was informed by her own interest in the more observational aspects of the study of heredity.[4] She studied at the London School of Medicine for Women (Royal Free Hospital) and qualified MRCS LRCP in 1920, was awarded membership of the Royal College of Physicians and made Galton research fellow under the Medical Research Council in 1926, and was elected Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians in 1938.[4] [10]

In 1932, Bell joined the genetics committee of the Medical Research Council and worked as a permanent member of the scientific staff of the Medical Research Council 1933-1944.[11] Her subsequent work led to her receiving the Weldon memorial prize and medal for biometry awarded by Oxford University in 1941.

Writings

Julia Bell's early output at the Galton Laboratory included a multi-part series titled A study of the long bones of the English skeleton, co-authored with Karl Pearson in 1917 and 1919.[12] [13] Other women working at the Galton Laboratory and referenced as contributors to this work include: E. Augusta Jones (formerly Secretary to Francis Galton [14]), mathematician Eleanor Pairman, Mary Seeger, microscopist Marion Radford[15], Eva Bramley Moore, mathematician Alice Lee, and Miss E.Y. Thomson.[12] The work was part-funded by a donation from H. Gertrude Jones, a former Secretary to the Galton Laboratory.[12] Pearson and Bell's analysis of the skeletal remains of different human populations and primates sought to identify "racial differences in man",[12] informed by the pseudo-science of eugenics originally formulated by Francis Galton whose bequest had funded the Galton Laboratory.[16]

Working as a member of the permanent staff of the Medical Research Council at the Galton Laboratory (renamed the Department of Human Genetics and Biometry in 1966), Julia Bell went on to do pioneering work in documenting the familial nature of many diseases.

Bell wrote most of the sections in the unique series The Treasury of Human Inheritance published by The Galton Laboratory between 1909 and 1956.[17] She was sole or lead author for all sections of Volume II: Nettleship Memorial Volume on Anomalies and Diseases of the Eye (1933), Volume IV: Nervous Diseases and Muscular Dystrophies (1948), and Volume V: On Hereditary Digital Anomalies (1951–58).[18] Bell's "combination of mathematical training, genetic knowledge and clinical expertise yielded numerous important insights into human inheritance first appearing in the Treasury," Harper noted.[19] Julia Bell's Treasury of Human Inheritance "remains a valuable scientific as well as an historical record of the genetics of a range of important inherited disorders."

In 1937, Julia Bell published a landmark article with J. B. S. Haldane which reported a linkage between the genes for colourblindness and haemophilia on the X chromosome.[20] This discovery was a key step toward the mapping of the human genome.

In 1943, Bell co-authored with James Purdon Martin a paper on the link between a form of intellectual disability in children and the X-chromosomes of the parents, with the condition subsequently being named Martin–Bell syndrome[21] [22]. It is now known as fragile X syndrome.

Julia Bell's 1951 work ‘On Brachydactyly and Symphalangism’ in Volume V: On Hereditary Digital Anomalies (1951–58) for The Treasury of Human Inheritance series was foundational for later research into the medical syndrome brachydactyly.[23] [24]

Julia Bell kept working actively for many years. At age 82 and still working for the Galton Laboratory, she published "On rubella in pregnancy" in The British Medical Journal.[25] [22] She retired at age 86; she kept in touch with genetics until her death at the age of 100.

References

  1. ^ Greta Jones, 'Bell, Julia (1879–1979)', Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, Sept 2004; online edn, Jan 2008 accessed 10 May 2008
  2. ^ Ogilvie, Marilyn Bailey and Joy Harvey, The Biographical Dictionary of Women in Science: Pioneering Lives from Ancient Times to the Mid 20th Century Routledge (2000)
  3. ^ Stratton, F.J.M. "The History of the Cambridge Observatories" Annals of the Solar Physics Observatory, Cambridge Vol. I (1949)
  4. ^ a b c d Jones, Greta. "Bell, Julia (1879–1979), geneticist". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/38514. Retrieved 6 February 2024.
  5. ^ "Julia Bell | RCP Museum". history.rcplondon.ac.uk. Retrieved 6 February 2024.
  6. ^ Love, Rosaleen (1979-03). "'Alice in Eugenics-Land': Feminism and Eugenics in the scientific careers of Alice Lee and Ethel Elderton". Annals of Science. 36 (2): 145–158. doi:10.1080/00033797900200451. ISSN 0003-3790. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  7. ^ Cain, Joe (24 May 2019). "Eugenics Money at UCL from Francis Galton". Professor Joe Cain. Retrieved 6 February 2024.
  8. ^ a b Love, Rosaleen (1979). "'Alice in Eugenics-Land': Feminism and Eugenics in the scientific careers of Alice Lee and Ethel Elderton". Annals of Science. 36 (2): 145–158. doi:10.1080/00033797900200451. ISSN 0003-3790.
  9. ^ "La Bell Époque: A Century of Julia Bell (part 1) | RCP Museum". history.rcplondon.ac.uk. Retrieved 26 January 2024.
  10. ^ "Julia Bell | RCP Museum". history.rcplondon.ac.uk. Retrieved 6 February 2024.
  11. ^ "Vignette: pioneering geneticist, Julia Bell (1879-1979)". MDDUS. Retrieved 6 February 2024.
  12. ^ a b c d Pearson, Karl; Bell, Julia (1917). A study of the long bones of the English skeleton. Part I. The UCL Institute of Education. Cambridge University Press.
  13. ^ Pearson, Karl; Bell, Julia (1919). A study of the long bones of the English skeleton. Part I, section II. The UCL Institute of Education. Cambridge University Press.
  14. ^ "Galton Papers, GALTON/2/10/9/20". UCL Special Collections. Retrieved 6 February 2024.
  15. ^ Pendleton, Mark (2001). A place of teaching and research: University College London and the origins of the research university in Britain 1890-1914 (Doctoral thesis). UCL (University College London).
  16. ^ UCL (18 November 2021). "Our Early History". Statistical Science. Retrieved 6 February 2024.
  17. ^ "Treasury of human inheritance / edited by Karl Pearson, R.A. Fisher, L.S. Penrose". Wellcome Collection. Retrieved 6 February 2024.
  18. ^ "Treasury of Human Inheritance (1909-1958) | Eugenics Laboratory". Professor Joe Cain. Retrieved 6 February 2024.
  19. ^ Julia Bell and the Treasury of Human Inheritance by Peter S. Harper.
  20. ^ Bell, J.; Haldane, J. B. S. (1937). "The Linkage between the Genes for Colour-Blindness and Haemophilia in Man". Proceedings of the Royal Society B. 123 (831): 119–150. Bibcode:1937RSPSB.123..119B. doi:10.1098/rspb.1937.0046.
  21. ^ Martin, J. P. & Bell, J. (1943). "A pedigree of mental defect showing sex-linkage". J. Neurol. Psychiatry. 6 (3–4): 154–157. doi:10.1136/jnnp.6.3-4.154. PMC 1090429. PMID 21611430.
  22. ^ a b King, Jesse. "Julia Bell (1879-1979) | Embryo Project Encyclopedia". Arizona State University. School of Life Sciences. Center for Biology and Society. Embryo Project Encyclopedia. ISSN 1940-5030. Retrieved 6 February 2024.
  23. ^ Temtamy, Samia A.; Aglan, Mona S. (13 June 2008). "Brachydactyly". Orphanet Journal of Rare Diseases. 3 (1): 15. doi:10.1186/1750-1172-3-15. ISSN 1750-1172.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  24. ^ Pitt, P.; Williams, I. (1985-06). "A new brachydactyly syndrome with similarities to Julia Bell types B and E". Journal of Medical Genetics. 22 (3): 202–204. doi:10.1136/jmg.22.3.202. ISSN 0022-2593. PMC 1049425. PMID 4009643. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  25. ^ Bell, Julia (14 March 1959). "On Rubella in Pregnancy". British Medical Journal. 1 (5123): 686–688. ISSN 0007-1447. PMC 1993148. PMID 13629090.
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