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#REDIRECT [[Bronze Age Europe]]
{{Short description|Period of European prehistory before the spread of the Celtic peoples}}
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{{More citations needed|date=June 2023}}
{{Use British English|date=June 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2023}}
[[File:Celtic expansion in Europe.png|250px|thumb|[[Synchrony and diachrony|Diachronic]] distribution of Celtic peoples:
{{legend|#FFFF43|6th century BC, core [[Hallstatt culture|Hallstatt]] territory|size=60%|outline=#FFD700}}
{{legend|#00FF7F|275&nbsp;BC, maximum Celtic expansion|size=60%|outline=#00FF7F}}
{{legend|#d2ffd2|[[Lusitanians|Lusitanian]] area of Iberia where Celtic presence is uncertain|size=60%|outline=#00FF7F}}
]]
'''Pre-Celtic Europe''' is the period of the [[Prehistoric Europe|prehistory of Europe]] before the emergence and spread of the [[Celts|Celtic peoples]].


{{Rcat shell|
==History==
{{R to related topic}}
{{Unreferenced section|date=June 2023}}
}}
When the Celts were first recorded about 600&nbsp;BC, they were already widespread across Iberia, Gaul, and Central Europe.{{cn|date=March 2022}} In Ireland, the ''[[Lebor Gabála Érenn|Book of Invasions]]'' gives a legendary account of the arrival of incoming peoples.

==Languages==
{{Original research section|date=June 2023}}
Proto-Celtic is mainly dated to approximately 800&nbsp;BC, coincident with the [[Hallstatt culture]], while the earliest possible divergence of pre-proto-Celtic dialects from [[Proto-Indo-European]] is mainly dated to between 3000&nbsp;BC and 2000&nbsp;BC.

In continental Europe, pre-Celtic languages of the [[European Bronze Age]] may be taken to comprise two distinct groups.
* Non-Indo-European languages (i.e. [[pre-Indo-European languages]]); these include [[Aquitanian language|Aquitanian]] (precursor of the [[Basque language|Basque]]),<ref>{{cite book|last=Trask|first=R. L.|date=1997|title=The History of Basque|page=9}}Citing Bertranpetit and Cavalli-Sforza: "Basques represent descendants of Paleolithic and/or Mesolithic populations and non-Basques later arrivals, beginning with the Neolithic."</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hualde|first1=José Ignacio|first2=Jon|last2=Ortiz de Urbina|title=A Grammar of Basque|date=2003|page=7}}</ref> [[Raetic language|Rhaetic]], [[Etruscan language|Etruscan]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Pallottino|date=1955|page=52|quote=[The Etruscans]...an ethnic island of very ancient peoples isolated by the flood of [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] speakers.}}</ref> [[Iberian language|Iberian]], which might be related to Basque but is still [[Unclassified language|unclassified]], and [[Paleo-Sardinian language|Paleo-Sardinian]] (there is evidence suggesting that it had connection to the reconstructed [[Proto-Basque]] and to the Iberian language). Some scholars group Etruscan, Rhaetic and [[Lemnian language|Lemnian]] together in the hypothetical [[Tyrrhenian language family]], which possibly originated in the [[Aegean Sea]] region or during the [[Neolithic]] north of the Alps.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Facchetti|first1=Giulio M.|last2=Negri|first2=Mario|title=Creta Minoica: Sulle tracce delle più antiche scritture d'Europa|trans-title=Minoan Crete: On the tracks of the most ancient writings in Europe|editor-first=Leo S.|editor-last=Olschki|journal=Biblioteca dell'Archivum Romanicum. Serie II: Linguistica|volume=55|date=2003|isbn=8822252918|lang=it}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | author=Bonfante |first=Larissa
| title=Etruscan
| year=1990
| location=Berkeley and Los Angeles
| publisher=University of California Press
| isbn= 978-0-520-07118-6
}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | author=De Simone |first=Carlo
| year=2009
| title=La nuova iscrizione tirsenica di Efestia
| trans-title=New Tyrsenic inscription in Hephaistia
| journal=Tripodes
| volume=11
| pages=3–58 |lang=it
}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | author=Steinbauer |first=Dieter H. | title=Neues Handbuch des Etruskischen |trans-title=New Handbook of Etruscan | year=1999 | publisher=Scripta Mercaturae Verlag |location=St. Katharinen|lang=de}}</ref> Conversely, the Lemnian language could have arrived in the [[Aegean Sea]] during the Late Bronze Age, when Mycenaean rulers recruited groups of mercenaries from Sicily, Sardinia and various parts of the Italian peninsula.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=De Ligt|first1=Luuk|title=An 'Eteocretan' Inscription from Praisos and The Homeland of The Sea Peoples |url =http://www.talanta.nl/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/TAL-40-412008-2009-pag-151-172-DeLigt.pdf|journal=Talanta|volume = 40–41 |date = 2008–2009|pages = 151–172}}</ref>
* Indo-European dialects, such as [[Illyrian language|Illyrian]], possibly [[Lusitanian language|Lusitanian]], the Proto-[[Italo-Celtic]] dialects, [[Belgian language|Belgian]] and "[[Old European hydronymy|Old European]]".<ref>{{cite journal|last=Kitson|first=P.R.|title=British and European River Names|journal=Transactions of the Philological Society|date=November 1996|volume=94|issue=2|pages=73–118|doi=10.1111/j.1467-968X.1996.tb01178.x}}</ref> However, Lusitanian and Belgian may turn out to be Celtic, while Old European may turn out to be either Celtic or non-Indo-European. The very existence of Indo-European speakers in Western Europe before the arrival of the Celts is highly speculative.

It has been suggested that results of large-scale genetic surveys, undertaken since the late 20th century, show that the present-day speakers of pre-Indo-European languages might not solely represent relict populations. For instance, Basques show a dominance of the [[Y-DNA]] [[Haplogroup R1b (Y-DNA)|Haplogroup R1b]],<ref name=balaresque>{{Cite journal | first1=Patricia | last1=Balaresque | first2=Georgina R. | last2=Bowden | first3=Susan M. | last3=Adams | first4=Ho-Yee | last4=Leung | first5=Turi E. | last5=King | first6=Zoë H. | last6=Rosser | first7=Jane | last7=Goodwin | first8=Jean-Paul | last8=Moisan | first9=Christelle | last9=Richard | first10=Ann | last10=Millward | first11=Andrew G. | last11=Demaine | first12=Guido | last12=Barbujani | first13=Carlo | last13=Previderè | first14=Ian J. | last14=Wilson | first15=Chris | last15=Tyler-Smith | first16=Mark A. | last16=Jobling | year = 2010 | title = A Predominantly Neolithic Origin for European Paternal Lineages | journal = [[PLOS Biology]] | volume = 8 | issue = 1 | pages=e1000285 | publisher = [[Public Library of Science]] | pmc=2799514 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pbio.1000285 | pmid=20087410 | editor1-last=Penny | editor1-first=David | doi-access=free }}</ref> which a majority of scholars now propose spread through Europe relatively recently, from the Eurasian steppe and/or southwest Asia in the late Neolithic period or early Bronze Age (4,000 to 8,000 years ago).<ref name="biorxiv.org">{{Cite journal | url=http://biorxiv.org/content/early/2015/02/10/013433 |biorxiv = 10.1101/013433|doi=10.1038/NATURE14317|title = Massive migration from the steppe is a source for Indo-European languages in Europe|journal = Nature|volume = 522|issue = 7555|pages = 207–11|year = 2015|last1 = Haak|first1 = Wolfgang|last2 = Lazaridis|first2 = Iosif|last3 = Patterson|first3 = Nick|last4 = Rohland|first4 = Nadin|last5 = Mallick|first5 = Swapan|last6 = Llamas|first6 = Bastien|last7 = Brandt|first7 = Guido|last8 = Nordenfelt|first8 = Susanne|last9 = Harney|first9 = Eadaoin|last10 = Stewardson|first10 = Kristin|last11 = Fu|first11 = Qiaomei|last12 = Mittnik|first12 = Alissa|last13 = Bánffy|first13 = Eszter|last14 = Economou|first14 = Christos|last15 = Francken|first15 = Michael|last16 = Friederich|first16 = Susanne|last17 = Pena|first17 = Rafael Garrido|last18 = Hallgren|first18 = Fredrik|last19 = Khartanovich|first19 = Valery|last20 = Khokhlov|first20 = Aleksandr|last21 = Kunst|first21 = Michael|last22 = Kuznetsov|first22 = Pavel|last23 = Meller|first23 = Harald|last24 = Mochalov|first24 = Oleg|last25 = Moiseyev|first25 = Vayacheslav|last26 = Nicklisch|first26 = Nicole|last27 = Pichler|first27 = Sandra L.|last28 = Risch|first28 = Roberto|last29 = Rojo Guerra|first29 = Manuel A.|last30 = Roth|first30 = Christina|bibcode = 2015Natur.522..207H|arxiv = 1502.02783|pmid = 25731166|pmc = 5048219}}</ref><ref name=balaresque/><ref name=isogg>{{cite web|url=http://www.isogg.org/tree/ISOGG_HapgrpR.html|publisher=International Society of Genetic Genealogy|title=Y-DNA Haplogroup R and its Subclades|access-date=2010-08-22}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first1=B.|last1=Arredi|first2=E. S.|last2=Poloni|first3=C.|last3=Tyler-Smith|contribution=The Peopling of Europe|editor-first=M.|editor-last=Crawford|title=Anthropological Genetics: Theory, Methods and Applications|publisher=Cambridge University Press|date=2007}}{{Page needed|date=November 2010}}</ref><ref name=Myres2010>{{Cite journal|title=A major Y-chromosome haplogroup R1b Holocene effect in Central and Western Europe|year=2010|last1=Myres|first1=Natalie|journal=European Journal of Human Genetics|doi=10.1038/ejhg.2010.146|volume=19|issue=1|pmid=20736979|pmc=3039512|last2=Rootsi|first2=Siiri|last3=Lin|first3=Alice A|last4=Järve|first4=Mari|last5=King|first5=Roy J.|last6=Kutuev|first6=Ildus|last7=Cabrera|first7=Vicente M|last8=Khusnutdinova|first8=Elza K|last9=Pshenichnov|first9=Andrey|last10=Yunusbayev|first10=Bayazit|last11=Balanovsky|first11=Oleg|last12=Balanovska|first12=Elena|last13=Rudan|first13=Pavao|last14=Baldović|first14=Marian|last15=Herrera|first15=René J.|last16=Chiaroni|first16=Jacques|last17=Di Cristofaro|first17=Julie|last18=Villems|first18=Richard|last19=Kivisild|first19=Toomas|last20=Underhill|first20=Peter A.|pages=95–101}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|journal=PLOS ONE |volume=6|issue=6:e21592| doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0021592|title=Wave-of-Advance Models of the Diffusion of the Y Chromosome Haplogroup R1b1b2 in Europe| first1=Per |last1=Sjödin|first2=Olivier |last2=François|year=2011|editor1-last=Lalueza-Fox|editor1-first=Carles|pages=e21592 |pmid=21720564 |pmc=3123369|bibcode=2011PLoSO...621592S|doi-access=free}}</ref> R1b replaced nearly all indigenous male lineages in Iberia from 2500 to 2000&nbsp;BC.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://harvardmagazine.com/iberia-men-19|title=Replacement of Iberian Men 4,000 Years Ago Raises Fresh Questions|year = 2019|last1 = McIntosh|first1 = Bennett|publisher=Harvard Magazine|access-date=2021-02-19}}</ref> However, present-day Basques also retain some very rare and archaic lineages, such as the [[Paleolithic]] [[mitochondrial DNA]] [[Haplogroup U (mtDNA)#Haplogroup U8|Haplogroup U8a]], and autosomal genetic analysis (the whole genome, not just Y-DNA) has shown that a majority of their ancestry derives from [[Neolithic]] farmers and [[Mesolithic]] hunter-gatherers, predating the arrival of speakers of Indo-European languages.<ref name="biorxiv.org" /><ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1038/nature14507| pmid=26062507| title=Population genomics of Bronze Age Eurasia| journal=Nature| volume=522| issue=7555| pages=167–172| year=2015| last1=Allentoft| first1=Morten E.| last2=Sikora| first2=Martin| last3=Sjögren| first3=Karl-Göran| last4=Rasmussen| first4=Simon| last5=Rasmussen| first5=Morten| last6=Stenderup| first6=Jesper| last7=Damgaard| first7=Peter B.| last8=Schroeder| first8=Hannes| last9=Ahlström| first9=Torbjörn| last10=Vinner| first10=Lasse| last11=Malaspinas| first11=Anna-Sapfo| last12=Margaryan| first12=Ashot| last13=Higham| first13=Tom| last14=Chivall| first14=David| last15=Lynnerup| first15=Niels| last16=Harvig| first16=Lise| last17=Baron| first17=Justyna| last18=Casa| first18=Philippe Della| last19=Dąbrowski| first19=Paweł| last20=Duffy| first20=Paul R.| last21=Ebel| first21=Alexander V.| last22=Epimakhov| first22=Andrey| last23=Frei| first23=Karin| last24=Furmanek| first24=Mirosław| last25=Gralak| first25=Tomasz| last26=Gromov| first26=Andrey| last27=Gronkiewicz| first27=Stanisław| last28=Grupe| first28=Gisela| last29=Hajdu| first29=Tamás| last30=Jarysz| first30=Radosław| bibcode=2015Natur.522..167A| s2cid=4399103| url=https://depot.ceon.pl/handle/123456789/13155}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | url=http://biorxiv.org/content/early/2015/03/13/016477 |doi = 10.1101/016477|title = Eight thousand years of natural selection in Europe|journal = bioRxiv|pages = 016477|year = 2015|last1 = Mathieson|first1 = Iain|last2 = Lazaridis|first2 = Iosif|last3 = Rohland|first3 = Nadin|last4 = Mallick|first4 = Swapan|last5 = Patterson|first5 = Nick|last6 = Alpaslan Roodenberg|first6 = Songul|last7 = Harney|first7 = Eadaoin|last8 = Stewardson|first8 = Kristin|last9 = Fernandes|first9 = Daniel|last10 = Novak|first10 = Mario|last11 = Sirak|first11 = Kendra|last12 = Gamba|first12 = Cristina|last13 = Jones|first13 = Eppie R.|last14 = Llamas|first14 = Bastien|last15 = Dryomov|first15 = Stanislav|last16 = Pickrell|first16 = Joseph|last17 = Arsuaga|first17 = Juan Luis|last18 = De Castro|first18 = Jose Maria Bermudez|last19 = Carbonell|first19 = Eudald|last20 = Gerritsen|first20 = Fokke|last21 = Khokhlov|first21 = Aleksandr|last22 = Kuznetsov|first22 = Pavel|last23 = Lozano|first23 = Marina|last24 = Meller|first24 = Harald|last25 = Mochalov|first25 = Oleg|last26 = Moiseyev|first26 = Vayacheslav|last27 = Rojo Guerra|first27 = Manuel A.|last28 = Roodenberg|first28 = Jacob|last29 = Verges|first29 = Josep Maria|last30 = Krause|first30 = Johannes|doi-access = free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|pmc=1523212 |title=The mitochondrial lineage U8a reveals a Paleolithic settlement in the Basque country |pmid=16719915 |doi=10.1186/1471-2164-7-124 |volume=7 |year=2006 |pages=124 |journal=BMC Genomics | last1 = González | first1 = A. M. | last2 = García | first2 = O. | last3 = Larruga | first3 = J. M. | last4 = Cabrera | first4 = V. M. |doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Archaeology==
{{Unreferenced section|date=June 2023}}
[[File:Cultures, 1200 BC.PNG|right|250px|thumb|A simplified map of archaeological cultures of the late Bronze Age ({{circa|1200&nbsp;BC}}):
{{legend|#1E90FF|[[Terramare culture]]|size=60%|outline=#1E90FF}}
{{legend|#FF0000|central [[Urnfield culture]]|size=60%|outline=#FF0000}}
{{legend|#FF8C00|northern Urnfield culture|size=60%|outline=#FF8C00}}
{{legend|#FF00FF|[[Lusatian culture]]|size=60%|outline=#FF00FF}}
{{legend|#1E90FF|(in central Europe) [[Knovíz culture]]|size=60%|outline=#1E90FF}}
{{legend|#808000|[[Danubian culture]]|size=60%|outline=#808000}}
{{legend|#00FF7F|[[Atlantic Bronze Age]]|size=60%|outline=#00FF7F}}
{{legend|#FFD700|[[Nordic Bronze Age]]|size=60%|outline=#FFD700}}
]]
{{Clear}}

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
*[[Neolithic Europe]]
*[[Old European culture]]
⚫
*[[Bronze Age Europe]]
*[[Old European hydronymy]]
*[[Germanic substrate hypothesis|Pre-Germanic]]
*[[Vasconic substratum hypothesis]]
*[[Atlantic (Semitic) languages]]
*[[Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula]]
*[[Prehistoric Britain]]
*[[Bronze Age Britain]]
*[[Prehistoric Ireland]]
*[[Paleolithic continuity theory]]
*[[Italo-Celtic]]
*[[Goidelic substrate hypothesis]]
*[[Magdalenian]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite book|last=Thompson |first=T. |title=Ireland's Pre-Celtic Archaeological and Anthropological Heritage |date=2006 |location=[[Lewiston, New York]] |publisher= [[Edwin Mellen Press]]}}
*{{cite book|last=Waddell |first=J. |contribution=The Celticization of the West: an Irish Perspective |editor1-first=C. |editor1-last=Chevillot |editor2-first=A. |editor2-last=Coffyn |title=L'Age du Bronze Atlantique: Actes du 1<sup>er</sup> Colloque de Beynac |location=Beynac |date=1991 |pages=349–366}}
*{{cite journal|last=Waddell |first=J. |title=The Question of the Celticization of Ireland |journal=Emania |volume=9 |date=1991 |page=5–16}}
*{{cite book|last=Waddell |first=J. |contribution=Celts, Celticisation and the Irish Bronze Age |editor1-first=J. |editor1-last=Waddell |editor2-first=E. |editor2-last=Shee Twohig |title=Ireland in the Bronze Age: Proceedings of the Dublin Conference |date=April 1995 |pages=158–169}}
{{refend}}

{{Celts}}
{{Eurasian languages}}

[[Category:Bronze Age Europe]]
[[Category:Celtic history]]
[[Category:Pre-Indo-Europeans]]
[[Category:Linguistic strata]]

Latest revision as of 15:25, 17 February 2024

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