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'''“Black yeasts”''', sometimes also '''black fungi''', [[dematiaceous|'''dematiaceous fungi''']], '''microcolonial fungi''' or '''meristematic fungi'''<ref>Sterflinger K (2006). [http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F3-540-30985-3_20?LI=true ''Black yeasts and meristematic fungi: ecology, diversity and identification.''] In: Péter, G., Rosa, C. (Eds.), The Yeast Handbook. Biodiversity and Ecophysiology of Yeasts. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, pp. 501-514.</ref> is an [[umbrella term]] to describe a diverse group of slow-growing [[microfungi]] which reproduce mostly [[Asexual reproduction|asexually]] ([[fungi imperfecti]]). Only few genera reproduce by [[Budding|budding cells]], while in others [[Hypha|hyphal]] or meristematic (isodiametric) reproduction is preponderant.<ref>Sudhadham M, Prakitsin S, Sivichai S, Chaiyarat R, Dorrestein GM, Menken SB, de Hoog GS (2008). ''The neurotropic black yeast Exophiala dermatitidis has a possible origin in the tropical rain forest''. Studies in Mycology '''61''': 145-55. [[PubMed_Identifier#PubMed_identifier|PMID]]: [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19287537 19287537].</ref><ref>de Hoog GS, Hermanides-Nijhof EJ (1977). ''The Black Yeasts and Allied Hyphomycetes.'' Studies in Mycology. '''15''': 1–222.</ref><ref>Butinar L, Sonjak S, Zalar P, Plemenitas A, Gunde-Cimerman N (2005). [http://web.bf.uni-lj.si/bi/biologija-mikroorganizmov/Publikacije/PDF%20datoteke/2005_BSZPGC.pdf ''Melanized halophilic fungi are eukaryotic members of microbial communities in hypersaline waters of solar salterns.''] Botanica Marina '''48''': 73-79.</ref><ref>Matos T, de Hoog GS, de Boer AG, de Crom I, Haase G (2002). ''High prevalence of the neurotrope Exophiala dermatitidis and related oligotrophic black yeasts in sauna facilities.'' Mycoses '''45''': 373-7. [[PMID]]: [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12421284 12421284]</ref> Black yeasts share some distinctive characteristics, in particular [[Melanin|melanisation]] of their [[Cell_wall#Fungal_cell_walls|cell wall]]. [[Morphology_(biology)|Morphological]] plasticity, incrustation of the cell wall with melanins and presence of other protective substances like carotenoids and mycosporines<ref>Gorbushina AA, Kotlova ER, Sherstneva OA (2008). ''Cellular responses of microcolonial rock fungi to long-term desiccation and subsequent rehydration.'' Studies in Mycology '''61''': 91-7. [[PMID]]: [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19287531 19287531]</ref> represent passive physiological adaptations which enable black fungi to be highly resistant against environmental stresses.<ref name="Gostincar et al. 2010">Gostincar C, Grube M, de Hoog GS, Zalar P, Gunde-Cimerman N (2010). ''Extremotolerance in fungi: evolution on the edge.'' FEMS Microbiology and Ecology '''71''': 2-11 (Review). [[PMID]]: [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=19878320 19878320]</ref> Presence of 1,8-dihydroxynaphtalene melanin in the cell wall<ref>Kogej T, Wheeler MH, Lanisnik Rizner T, Gunde-Cimerman N (2004). ''Evidence for 1,8-dihydroxynaphthalene melanin in three halophilic black yeasts grown under saline and non-saline conditions.'' FEMS Microbiology Letters '''232''': 203-9. [[PMID]]: [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=15033240 15033240]</ref> confers to the microfungi their characteristic olivaceous to dark brown/black colour.
'''“Black yeasts”''', sometimes also '''black fungi''', [[dematiaceous|'''dematiaceous fungi''']], '''microcolonial fungi''' or '''meristematic fungi'''<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/3-540-30985-3_20}}</ref> is an [[umbrella term]] to describe a diverse group of slow-growing [[microfungi]] which reproduce mostly [[Asexual reproduction|asexually]] ([[fungi imperfecti]]). Only few genera reproduce by [[Budding|budding cells]], while in others [[Hypha|hyphal]] or meristematic (isodiametric) reproduction is preponderant.<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=19287537}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=de Hoog |first1=GS |last2=Hermanides-Nijhof |first2=EJ |year=1977 |title=The Black Yeasts and Allied Hyphomycetes |journal=Studies in Mycology |volume=15 |pages=1–222 |oclc=222951121}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1515/BOT.2005.007}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |pmid=12421284}}</ref> Black yeasts share some distinctive characteristics, in particular [[Melanin|melanisation]] of their [[Cell_wall#Fungal_cell_walls|cell wall]]. [[Morphology_(biology)|Morphological]] plasticity, incrustation of the cell wall with melanins and presence of other protective substances like carotenoids and mycosporines<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=19287531}}</ref> represent passive physiological adaptations which enable black fungi to be highly resistant against environmental stresses.<ref name="Gostincar et al. 2010">{{cite journal |pmid=19878320}}</ref> Presence of 1,8-dihydroxynaphtalene melanin in the cell wall<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=15033240}}</ref> confers to the microfungi their characteristic olivaceous to dark brown/black colour.


The consortium comprises two [[Phylogenetics|phylogenetically]] very different fungal groups.<ref name="Gueidan et al. 2008">Gueidan C, Villasenor CR, de Hoog GS, Gorbushina AA, Untereiner WA, Lutzoni F (2008). ''A rock-inhabiting ancestor for mutualistic and pathogen-rich fungal lineages.'' Studies in Mycology '''61''': 111-9. [[PMID]]: [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=19287533 19287533]</ref><ref name="Ruibal et al. 2009">Ruibal C, Gueidan C, Selbmann L, Gorbushina AA, Crous PW, Groenewald JZ, Muggia L, Grube M, Isola D, Schoch CL, Staley JT, Lutzoni F, de Hoog GS (2009). ''Phylogeny of rock-inhabiting fungi related to Dothideomycetes.'' Studies in Mycology '''64''': 123-133. [[PMID]]: [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=20169026 20169026]</ref> Many are found in the orders ''[[Capnodiales]]'', ''[[Dothideales]]'', and ''[[Pleosporales]]'' (class ''[[Dothideomycetes]]''). These black fungi mostly have an extremotolerant life style. Many representatives of this group can colonize bare rocks e.g. in the Mediterranean basin or in hot and cold dry deserts and are therefore referred to as '''rock-inhabiting fungi'''<ref name="Gueidan et al. 2008" /><ref name="Ruibal et al. 2009" />, or occur in salterns.<ref name="Plemenitas et al. 2008">Plemenitas A, Vaupotic T, Lenassi M, Kogej T, Gunde-Cimerman N (2008). ''Adaptation of extremely halotolerant black yeast Hortaea werneckii to increased osmolarity: a molecular perspective at a glance.'' Studies in Mycology '''61''': 67-75. [[PMID]]: [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=19287528 19287528]</ref> These black yeasts are believed to be the most resistant eukaryotic organisms known to-date.<ref name="Gostincar et al. 2010" /> They were firstly described in the early ’80 by three almost concomitant seminal research articles.<ref>Staley JT, Palmer F, Adams JB (1982). ''Microcolonial fungi: common inhabitants on desert rocks?'' Science '''215''': 1093-5. [[PMID]]: [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=17771840 17771840]</ref><ref>Krumbein WE, Jens K (1981). [http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF00378791?LI=true#page-1 ''Biogenic Rock Varnishes of the Negev Desert (Israel) an Ecological Study of Iron and Manganese Transformation by Cyanobacteria and Fungi.''] Oecologia '''50''': 25-38.</ref><ref>Friedmann EI (1982). ''Endolithic microorganisms in the antarctic cold desert.'' Science '''215''': 1045-53. [[PMID]]: [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=17771821 17771821]</ref> Members of ''[[Chaetothyriales]]'' (class ''[[Eurotiomycetes]]'')<ref name="Gueidan et al. 2008" /><ref name="Ruibal et al. 2009" /> are found in hydrocarbon-rich environments or in nutrient poor, moist indoor environments, and may occur as [[Opportunistic_infection|opportunistic pathogens]] of vertebrate hosts, such as [[Exophiala dermatitidis|''Exophiala'' (''Wangiella'') ''dermatitidis'']].<ref>de Hoog GS, Guarro J, Gené J, Figueras MJ (2009). [http://www.clinicalfungi.org/ ''Atlas of Clinical Fungi''], third ed. Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures, Utrecht, The Netherlands.</ref> Several species are associated with [[lichens]]<ref>Muggia L, Gueidan C, Knudsen K, Perlmutter G, Grube M (2012). ''The Lichen Connections of Black Fungi.'' Mycopathologia. 2012 Nov 17. [Epub ahead of print] [[PMID]]: [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=23161018 23161018]</ref><ref>Harutyunyan S, Muggia L, Grube M (2008). ''Black fungi in lichens from seasonally arid habitats.'' Studies in Mycology '''61''': 83-90. [[PMID]]: [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=19287530 19287530]</ref> as well as other [[phototrophs]]<ref>Gostinčar C, Muggia L, Grube M (2012). ''Polyextremotolerant black fungi: oligotrophism, adaptive potential, and a link to lichen symbioses.'' Frontiers in Microbiology 2012 Nov 8 [Epub ahead of print] [[PMID]]: [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23162543 23162543]</ref> and sometimes with ants in specific [[Ant-fungus mutualism|ant-fungi associations]].<ref>Voglmayr H, Mayer V, Maschwitz U, Moog J, Djieto-Lordon C, Blatrix R (2011). ''The diversity of ant-associated black yeasts: insights into a newly discovered world of symbiotic interactions.'' Fungal Biology '''115''': 1077-91. [[PMID]]: [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=21944219 21944219]</ref>
The consortium comprises two [[Phylogenetics|phylogenetically]] very different fungal groups.<ref name="Gueidan et al. 2008">{{cite journal |pmid=19287533}}</ref><ref name="Ruibal et al. 2009">{{cite journal |pmid=20169026}}</ref> Many are found in the orders ''[[Capnodiales]]'', ''[[Dothideales]]'', and ''[[Pleosporales]]'' (class ''[[Dothideomycetes]]''). These black fungi mostly have an extremotolerant life style. Many representatives of this group can colonize bare rocks e.g. in the Mediterranean basin or in hot and cold dry deserts and are therefore referred to as '''rock-inhabiting fungi''',<ref name="Gueidan et al. 2008" /><ref name="Ruibal et al. 2009" /> or occur in salterns.<ref name="Plemenitas et al. 2008">{{cite journal |pmid=19287528}}</ref> These black yeasts are believed to be the most resistant eukaryotic organisms known to-date.<ref name="Gostincar et al. 2010" /> They were firstly described in the early 80s by three almost concomitant seminal research articles.<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=17771840}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/BF00378791}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |pmid=17771821}}</ref> Members of ''[[Chaetothyriales]]'' (class ''[[Eurotiomycetes]]'')<ref name="Gueidan et al. 2008" /><ref name="Ruibal et al. 2009" /> are found in hydrocarbon-rich environments or in nutrient poor, moist indoor environments, and may occur as [[Opportunistic_infection|opportunistic pathogens]] of vertebrate hosts, such as [[Exophiala dermatitidis|''Exophiala'' (''Wangiella'') ''dermatitidis'']].<ref>de Hoog GS, Guarro J, Gené J, Figueras MJ (2009). [http://www.clinicalfungi.org/ ''Atlas of Clinical Fungi''], third ed. Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures, Utrecht, The Netherlands.</ref> Several species are associated with [[lichens]]<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=23161018}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |pmid=19287530}}</ref> as well as other [[phototrophs]]<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=23162543}}</ref> and sometimes with ants in specific [[Ant-fungus mutualism|ant-fungi associations]].<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=21944219}}</ref>


In recent years, black fungi such as ''E. dermatitidis'' or [[Hortaea werneckii|''Hortaea werneckii'']] have attracted increasingly attention as model microorganisms in studies on [[astrobiology]],<ref>Onofri S, Barreca D, Selbmann L, Isola D, Rabbow E, Horneck G, de Vera JP, Hatton J, Zucconi L (2008). ''Resistance of Antarctic black fungi and cryptoendolithic communities to simulated space and Martian conditions.'' Studies in Mycology '''61''': 99-109. [[PMID]]: [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=19287532 19287532]</ref> [[bioremediation]] of polluted ecosystems by [[biofiltration]],<ref>Prenafeta-Boldú FX, Summerbell R, Sybren de Hoog G (2006). ''Fungi growing on aromatic hydrocarbons: biotechnology's unexpected encounter with biohazard?'' FEMS Microbiology Review '''30''':109-30 (Review). [[PMID]]: [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=16438682 16438682]</ref> effect of [[ionizing radiation]]s in contaminated area,<ref>Robertson KL, Mostaghim A, Cuomo CA, Soto CM, Lebedev N, Bailey RF, Wang Z (2012). ''Adaptation of the Black Yeast Wangiella dermatitidis to Ionizing Radiation: Molecular and Cellular Mechanisms.'' PLoS One '''7'''(11): e48674. [http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0048674 doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0048674]</ref><ref>Dadachova E, Bryan RA, Huang X, Moadel T, Schweitzer AD, Aisen P, Nosanchuk JD, Casadevall A (2007). ''Ionizing radiation changes the electronic properties of melanin and enhances the growth of melanized fungi.'' PLoS One. '''2'''(5): e457. [http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0000457 doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0000457]</ref> biodeterioration of materials,<ref>Cappitelli F, Nosanchuk JD, Casadevall A, Toniolo L, Brusetti L, Florio S, Principi P, Borin S, Sorlini C (2007). ''Synthetic consolidants attacked by melanin-producing fungi: case study of the biodeterioration of Milan (Italy) cathedral marble treated with acrylics.'' Applied and Environmental Microbiology '''73''': 271-7. [[PMID]]: [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=17071788 17071788]</ref><ref>Gorbushina AA., Krumbein WE, Hamman CH, Panina L, Soukharjevski S, Wollenzien U (1993). [http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01490459309377952#preview ''Role of Black Fungi in Color-Change and Biodeterioration of Antique Marbles.''] Geomicrobiology Journal '''11''': 205-221.</ref> and mechanisms of [[Halotolerance|adaptation to high salt concentrations]].<ref name="Plemenitas et al. 2008" /> A collaborative effort coordinated by the [[Broad Institute]] is currently ongoing to [[Whole genome sequencing|sequence the genomes]] of several black fungi to shed light into their ecology, phylogeny and pathogenicity.
In recent years, black fungi such as ''E. dermatitidis'' or [[Hortaea werneckii|''Hortaea werneckii'']] have attracted increasingly attention as model microorganisms in studies on [[astrobiology]],<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=19287532}}</ref> [[bioremediation]] of polluted ecosystems by [[biofiltration]],<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=16438682}}</ref> effect of [[ionizing radiation]]s in contaminated area,<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0048674}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0000457}}</ref> biodeterioration of materials,<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=17071788}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/01490459309377952}}</ref> and mechanisms of [[Halotolerance|adaptation to high salt concentrations]].<ref name="Plemenitas et al. 2008" /> A collaborative effort coordinated by the [[Broad Institute]] is currently ongoing to [[Whole genome sequencing|sequence the genomes]] of several black fungi to shed light into their ecology, phylogeny and pathogenicity.


In 2011, a research paper about occurrence of potentially pathogenic black fungi in household dishwashers<ref>Zalar P, Novak M, de Hoog GS, Gunde-Cimerman N (2011). ''Dishwashers – a man-made ecological niche accommodating human opportunistic fungal pathogens.'' Fungal Biology '''115''': 997-1007. [[PMID]]: [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=21944212 21944212]</ref> was partially misreported by the media and went viral.<ref>[http://scienceillustrated.com.au/blog/science/my-dishwasher-is-trying-to-kill-me/ ''My dishwasher is trying to kill me''] on [http://www.scienceillustrated.com/ Science Illustrated]</ref><ref>[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/06/110620133138.htm ''My Dishwasher Is Trying to Kill Me: New Research Finds Harmful Fungal Pathogens Living in Dishwasher Seals''] on [http://www.sciencedaily.com/ Science Daily]</ref>
In 2011, a research paper about occurrence of potentially pathogenic black fungi in household dishwashers<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=21944212}}</ref> was partially misreported by the media and went viral.<ref>[http://scienceillustrated.com.au/blog/science/my-dishwasher-is-trying-to-kill-me/ ''My dishwasher is trying to kill me''] on [http://www.scienceillustrated.com/ Science Illustrated]</ref><ref>[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/06/110620133138.htm ''My Dishwasher Is Trying to Kill Me: New Research Finds Harmful Fungal Pathogens Living in Dishwasher Seals''] on [http://www.sciencedaily.com/ Science Daily]</ref>


Black yeasts are '''not''' related to the edible [[cloud ear fungus]] ''Auricularia polytricha''.
Black yeasts are '''not''' related to the edible [[cloud ear fungus]] ''Auricularia polytricha''.


==References==
==References==
{{reflist}}
<references/>


==External links==
==External links==

Revision as of 05:40, 18 December 2012

“Black yeasts”, sometimes also black fungi, dematiaceous fungi, microcolonial fungi or meristematic fungi[1] is an umbrella term to describe a diverse group of slow-growing microfungi which reproduce mostly asexually (fungi imperfecti). Only few genera reproduce by budding cells, while in others hyphal or meristematic (isodiametric) reproduction is preponderant.[2][3][4][5] Black yeasts share some distinctive characteristics, in particular melanisation of their cell wall. Morphological plasticity, incrustation of the cell wall with melanins and presence of other protective substances like carotenoids and mycosporines[6] represent passive physiological adaptations which enable black fungi to be highly resistant against environmental stresses.[7] Presence of 1,8-dihydroxynaphtalene melanin in the cell wall[8] confers to the microfungi their characteristic olivaceous to dark brown/black colour.

The consortium comprises two phylogenetically very different fungal groups.[9][10] Many are found in the orders Capnodiales, Dothideales, and Pleosporales (class Dothideomycetes). These black fungi mostly have an extremotolerant life style. Many representatives of this group can colonize bare rocks e.g. in the Mediterranean basin or in hot and cold dry deserts and are therefore referred to as rock-inhabiting fungi,[9][10] or occur in salterns.[11] These black yeasts are believed to be the most resistant eukaryotic organisms known to-date.[7] They were firstly described in the early 80s by three almost concomitant seminal research articles.[12][13][14] Members of Chaetothyriales (class Eurotiomycetes)[9][10] are found in hydrocarbon-rich environments or in nutrient poor, moist indoor environments, and may occur as opportunistic pathogens of vertebrate hosts, such as Exophiala (Wangiella) dermatitidis.[15] Several species are associated with lichens[16][17] as well as other phototrophs[18] and sometimes with ants in specific ant-fungi associations.[19]

In recent years, black fungi such as E. dermatitidis or Hortaea werneckii have attracted increasingly attention as model microorganisms in studies on astrobiology,[20] bioremediation of polluted ecosystems by biofiltration,[21] effect of ionizing radiations in contaminated area,[22][23] biodeterioration of materials,[24][25] and mechanisms of adaptation to high salt concentrations.[11] A collaborative effort coordinated by the Broad Institute is currently ongoing to sequence the genomes of several black fungi to shed light into their ecology, phylogeny and pathogenicity.

In 2011, a research paper about occurrence of potentially pathogenic black fungi in household dishwashers[26] was partially misreported by the media and went viral.[27][28]

Black yeasts are not related to the edible cloud ear fungus Auricularia polytricha.

References

  1. ^ . doi:10.1007/3-540-30985-3_20. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
  2. ^ . PMID 19287537. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
  3. ^ de Hoog, GS; Hermanides-Nijhof, EJ (1977). "The Black Yeasts and Allied Hyphomycetes". Studies in Mycology. 15: 1–222. OCLC 222951121.
  4. ^ . doi:10.1515/BOT.2005.007. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
  5. ^ . PMID 12421284. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
  6. ^ . PMID 19287531. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
  7. ^ a b . PMID 19878320. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
  8. ^ . PMID 15033240. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
  9. ^ a b c . PMID 19287533. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
  10. ^ a b c . PMID 20169026. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
  11. ^ a b . PMID 19287528. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
  12. ^ . PMID 17771840. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
  13. ^ . doi:10.1007/BF00378791. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
  14. ^ . PMID 17771821. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
  15. ^ de Hoog GS, Guarro J, Gené J, Figueras MJ (2009). Atlas of Clinical Fungi, third ed. Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
  16. ^ . PMID 23161018. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
  17. ^ . PMID 19287530. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
  18. ^ . PMID 23162543. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
  19. ^ . PMID 21944219. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
  20. ^ . PMID 19287532. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
  21. ^ . PMID 16438682. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
  22. ^ . doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0048674. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  23. ^ . doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0000457. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  24. ^ . PMID 17071788. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
  25. ^ . doi:10.1080/01490459309377952. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
  26. ^ . PMID 21944212. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
  27. ^ My dishwasher is trying to kill me on Science Illustrated
  28. ^ My Dishwasher Is Trying to Kill Me: New Research Finds Harmful Fungal Pathogens Living in Dishwasher Seals on Science Daily
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