Migratory locust: Difference between revisions

Migratory locust
	Female migratory locust
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Arthropoda
Class:	Insecta
Order:	Orthoptera
Suborder:	Caelifera
Family:	Acrididae
Subfamily:	Oedipodinae
Genus:	Locusta
Binomial name
	Locusta migratoria; (Linnaeus, 1758)
Synonyms
	Acridium migratorium ; Acridium plorans ; Pachytylus australis Saussure, 1884 ; Pachytylus migratorius (Linnaeus, 1758 ; Pachytylus migratorioides (Fairmaire & L.J. Reiche, 1849) ;

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The migratory locust (Locusta migratoria) is the most widespread locust species, and the only species in the genus Locusta. It occurs throughout Africa, Asia, Australia and New Zealand. It used to be common in Europe but has now become rare there. Because of the vast geographic area it occupies, which comprises many different ecological zones, numerous subspecies have been described. However, not all experts agree on the validity of some of these subspecies.

Many other species of Orthoptera with gregarious and migratory behaviour are referred to as 'locusts' in the vernacular.

Polyphenism

The migratory locust is polyphenic. It transitions between two main phenotypes in response to population density; the solitary phase and the gregarious phase. As the density of the population increases the locust transforms progressively from the solitary phase towards the gregarious phase with intermediate phases:

Solitaire = solitary phase → transiens congregans (intermediate form) → gregarious phase → transiens dissocians (intermediate form) → solitaire = solitary phase.

Pigmentation and size of the migratory locust vary according to its phase (gregarious or solitary form) and its age. Gregarious larvae have a yellow to orange covering with black spots; solitary larvae are green or brown. The gregarious adult is brownish with yellow, the latter colour becoming more intense and extensive on maturation. The solitary adult is brown with varying extent of green colour depending on the colour of the vegetation. Gregarious adults vary in size between 40 and 60 mm according to the sex; they are smaller than the solitary adults.

Relationship with humans

Economic impact

Locusts are highly mobile, and usually fly with the wind at a speed of about 15 to 20 kilometres per hour (9.3 to 12.4 mph). Swarms can travel 5 to 130 km or more in a day. Locust swarms can vary from less than one square kilometre to several hundred square kilometres with 40 to 80 million individuals per square kilometre. An adult locust can consume its own weight (about 2 grams) in fresh food per day. For every million locusts, one ton of food is eaten.

In Africa, the last serious widespread plague of L. m. migratorioides occurred from 1928 to 1942. Since then, environmental transformations have made the development of swarms from the African migratory locust unlikely. Nevertheless potential outbreaks are constantly monitored as plagues can be devastating. The Malagasy migratory locust (L. m. capito) still regularly swarms (roughly twice every ten years). The desert locust, which is very similar to the African migratory locust, remains a major threat too.

Locust survey and control are primarily the responsibility of the Ministry of Agriculture in locust-affected countries and are operations undertaken by national locust units. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations provides information on the general locust situation to all interested countries and gives warnings and forecasts to those countries in danger of invasion.

Edibility

The migratory locust is edible.^[1]

Subspecies of Locusta migratoria

L. migratoria is found over a vast geographic area, and its range covers many different ecological zones. Because of this, numerous subspecies have been described; however, not all experts agree on the validity of some of these subspecies.^[2]

L. m. burmana Ramme, 1951
L. m. capito Saussure, 1884 (Madagascar)
L. m. cinerascens Fabricius, 1781 (Italy, Spain)
L. m. manilensis (Meyen, 1835) 1 (eastern Asia)
L. m. migratoria (Linnaeus, 1758) (West and Central Asia, eastern Europe)
L. m. migratorioides (Fairmaire & L.J. Reiche, 1849) (mainland Africa and Atlantic islands)
L. m. tibetensis Chen, Yonglin, 1963
L. m. danica (Linnaeus, 1767) = L. m. migratoria (Linnaeus, 1758)
L. m. gallica Remaudičre, 1947 = L. m. migratoria (Linnaeus, 1758)
L. m. solitaria Carthy, 1955 = L. m. migratoria (Linnaeus, 1758)

Other species called 'locusts'

Other species of Orthoptera that display gregarious and migratory behaviour are called 'locusts'.

American desert locust Schistocerca americana
Australian plague locust Chortoicetes terminifera
Bombay locust Nomadacris succincta
Brown locust Locustana pardalina
Desert locust Schistocerca gregaria
Egyptian locust Anacridium aegyptium
Italian locust Calliptamus italicus
Moroccan locust Dociostaurus maroccanus
Red locust Nomadacris septemfasciata
Rocky Mountain locust Melanoplus spretus – extinct
Sahelian tree locust Anacridium melanorhodon
Spur-throated locust, Australis procera
Sudan plague locust Aiolopus simulatrix

The Senegalese grasshopper (Oedaleus senegalensis) also often displays locust-like behaviour in the Sahel region.

Footnotes

^ Oonincx, Dennis G. A. B. (29 December 2010). "An Exploration on Greenhouse Gas and Ammonia Production by Insect Species Suitable for Animal or Human Consumption". PLoS ONE. 5 (12): e14445. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0014445. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
^ Chapuis, M-P. (1 August 2008). "Do outbreaks affect genetic population structure? A worldwide survey in a pest plagued by microsatellite null alleles". Molecular Ecology. 17 (16): 3640–3653. doi:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2008.03869.x. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)

References

Walker, Annette (2000). The Reed Handbook of Common New Zealand Insects. Auckland: Reed. ISBN 0-7900-0718-5. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
Steedman, Alison, ed. (1988). Locust Handbook (2nd ed.). London: Overseas Development Natural Resources Institute. ISBN 0-85954-232-7.

External links

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
The phenomenon of phases
Biolib
Fauna Europaea
Genus Locusta at Orthoptera Species File on Line

[Oonincx-1] Oonincx, Dennis G. A. B. (29 December 2010). "An Exploration on Greenhouse Gas and Ammonia Production by Insect Species Suitable for Animal or Human Consumption". PLoS ONE. 5 (12): e14445. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0014445. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)

[Chapuis-2] Chapuis, M-P. (1 August 2008). "Do outbreaks affect genetic population structure? A worldwide survey in a pest plagued by microsatellite null alleles". Molecular Ecology. 17 (16): 3640–3653. doi:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2008.03869.x. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)

[1]

[2]

@@ Line 17: / Line 17: @@
 * ''Acridium migratorium'' <small> </small>
 * ''Acridium plorans'' <small> </small>
-* ''Pachytylus australis'' <small> Saussure, 1884 </small>
+* ''Pachytylus australis'' <small>Saussure, 1884 </small>
-* ''Pachytylus migratorius'' <small> (Linnaeus, 1758 </small>
+* ''Pachytylus migratorius'' <small>(Linnaeus, 1758 </small>
-* ''Pachytylus migratorioides'' <small> (Fairmaire & L.J. Reiche, 1849) </small>
+* ''Pachytylus migratorioides'' <small>(Fairmaire & L.J. Reiche, 1849) </small>
 }}
 The '''migratory locust''' (''Locusta migratoria'') is the most widespread locust species, and the only species in the genus ''Locusta''. It occurs throughout [[Africa]], [[Asia]], [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]]. It used to be common in [[Europe]] but has now become rare there. Because of the vast geographic area it occupies, which comprises many different ecological zones, numerous subspecies have been described. However, not all experts agree on the validity of some of these subspecies.
-Many other  species of Orthoptera  with gregarious and migratory behavior are indicated with the name of 'locusts'.
+Many other species of Orthoptera with gregarious and migratory behaviour are referred to as 'locusts' in the vernacular.
 ==Polyphenism==
 The migratory locust is [[Polyphenism|polyphenic]]. It transitions between two main phenotypes in response to population density; the solitary phase and the gregarious phase. As the density of the population increases the locust transforms progressively from the solitary phase towards the gregarious phase with intermediate phases:
-Solitaire = solitary phase → transiens congregans (intermediate form) → gregarious phase → transiens dissocians (intermediate form) → solitaire = solitary phase.
+:Solitaire = solitary phase → transiens congregans (intermediate form) → gregarious phase → transiens dissocians (intermediate form) → solitaire = solitary phase.
-Pigmentation and size of the migratory locust vary according to its phase (gregarious or solitary form) and its age. ''Gregarious larvae'' have a yellow to orange covering with black spots. ''Solitary larvae'' are green or brown. The ''gregarious adult'' is brownish with yellow, the latter colour becoming more intense and extensive on maturation. The ''solitary adult'' is brown with varying extent of green colour depending on the colour of the vegetation. ''Gregarious adults'' vary in size between 40 and 60 mm according to the sex. They are smaller than the solitary adults.
+Pigmentation and size of the migratory locust vary according to its phase (gregarious or solitary form) and its age. Gregarious larvae have a yellow to orange covering with black spots; solitary larvae are green or brown. The gregarious adult is brownish with yellow, the latter colour becoming more intense and extensive on maturation. The solitary adult is brown with varying extent of green colour depending on the colour of the vegetation. Gregarious adults vary in size between 40 and 60 mm according to the sex; they are smaller than the solitary adults.
+==Relationship with humans==
-== Economic Impact ==
+===Economic impact===
-Locusts are highly mobile, and usually fly with the wind at a speed of about 15-20 km/h. Swarms can travel 5-130 km or more in a day. Locust swarms can vary from less than one square kilometre to several hundred square kilometres with 40 to 80 million individuals per square kilometre. An adult locust can consume its own weight (about 2 grams) in fresh food per day. For every million locusts, one ton of food is eaten.
+[[File:Locusta m. migratorioides female.jpg|thumb|''L. m. migratorioides'' female]]
+Locusts are highly mobile, and usually fly with the wind at a speed of about {{convert|15|to|20|km/h}}. Swarms can travel 5 to 130 km or more in a day. Locust swarms can vary from less than one square kilometre to several hundred square kilometres with 40 to 80 million individuals per square kilometre. An adult locust can consume its own weight (about 2 grams) in fresh food per day. For every million locusts, one ton of food is eaten.
-In Africa, the last serious widespread plague of ''Locusta m. migratorioides'' occurred from 1928 to 1942. Since then, environmental transformations have made the development of swarms from the African migratory locust unlikely. However, the Malagasy migratory locust (''L. m. capito'') still regularly swarms (roughly twice every ten years). The [[desert locust]], which is very similar to the African migratory locust, remains a major threat too. Nevertheless potential outbreaks are constantly monitored as plagues can be devastating.
+In Africa, the last serious widespread plague of ''L. m. migratorioides'' occurred from 1928 to 1942. Since then, environmental transformations have made the development of swarms from the African migratory locust unlikely. Nevertheless potential outbreaks are constantly monitored as plagues can be devastating.
+The Malagasy migratory locust (''L. m. capito'') still regularly swarms (roughly twice every ten years). The [[desert locust]], which is very similar to the African migratory locust, remains a major threat too.
 Locust survey and control are primarily the responsibility of the Ministry of Agriculture in locust-affected countries and are operations undertaken by national locust units. The [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] (FAO) of the [[United Nations]] provides information on the general locust situation to all interested countries and gives warnings and forecasts to those countries in danger of invasion.
-==Edibility==
+===Edibility===
+The migratory locust is [[entomophagy|edible]].<ref name=Oonincx>{{cite journal |last=Oonincx |first=Dennis G. A. B. |coauthors=van Itterbeeck, Joost; Heetkamp, Marcel J. W.; van den Brand, Henry; van Loon, Joop J. A.; van Huis, Arnold; Hansen, Immo A. |title=An Exploration on Greenhouse Gas and Ammonia Production by Insect Species Suitable for Animal or Human Consumption |journal=PLoS ONE |date=29 December 2010 |volume=5 |issue=12 |pages=e14445 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0014445}}</ref>
-The Migratory Locust is edible <ref>http://www.kingjamesbibleonline.org/1611_Leviticus-11-22/</ref>
+==Subspecies of ''Locusta migratoria''==
+[[File:Locusta migratoria migratorioides male.jpg|thumb|''L. m. migratorioides'' male]]
+''L. migratoria'' is found over a vast geographic area, and its range covers many different ecological zones.  Because of this, numerous subspecies have been described; however, not all experts agree on the validity of some of these subspecies.<ref name=Chapuis>{{cite journal|last=Chapuis|first=M-P.|coauthors=Lecoq, M.; Michalakis, Y.; Loiseau, A.; Sword, G. A.; Piry, S.; Estoup, A.|title=Do outbreaks affect genetic population structure? A worldwide survey in a pest plagued by microsatellite null alleles|journal=Molecular Ecology|date=1 August 2008|volume=17|issue=16|pages=3640–3653|doi=10.1111/j.1365-294X.2008.03869.x}}</ref>
+* ''L. m. burmana'' <small>Ramme, 1951</small>
+* ''L. m. capito'' <small>Saussure, 1884</small> (Madagascar)
+* ''L. m. cinerascens'' <small>Fabricius, 1781</small> (Italy, Spain)
+* ''L. m. manilensis'' <small>(Meyen, 1835) 1</small> (eastern Asia)
+* ''L. m. migratoria'' <small>(Linnaeus, 1758)</small> (West and Central Asia, eastern Europe)
+* ''L. m. migratorioides'' <small>(Fairmaire & L.J. Reiche, 1849)</small> (mainland Africa and Atlantic islands)
+* ''L. m. tibetensis'' <small>Chen, Yonglin, 1963</small>
+* ''L. m. danica'' <small>(Linnaeus, 1767)</small> = ''L. m. migratoria'' <small>(Linnaeus, 1758)</small>
+* ''L. m. gallica'' <small>Remaudičre, 1947</small> =  ''L. m. migratoria'' <small>(Linnaeus, 1758)</small>
+* ''L. m. solitaria'' <small>Carthy, 1955</small> = ''L. m. migratoria'' <small>(Linnaeus, 1758)</small>
+== Other species called 'locusts' ==
+Other species of Orthoptera that display gregarious and migratory behaviour are called 'locusts'.
-== List of 'locusts' ==
 * [[American desert locust]] ''Schistocerca americana''
 * [[Australian plague locust]] ''Chortoicetes terminifera''
@@ Line 49: / Line 69: @@
 * [[Brown locust]] ''Locustana pardalina''
 * [[Desert locust]] ''Schistocerca gregaria''
+* [[Anacridium aegyptium|Egyptian locust]] ''Anacridium aegyptium''
 * [[Italian locust]] ''Calliptamus italicus''
-* Migratory locust ''Locusta migratoria''
 * [[Moroccan locust]] ''Dociostaurus maroccanus''
 * [[Red locust]] ''Nomadacris septemfasciata''
 * [[Rocky Mountain locust]] ''Melanoplus spretus'' – extinct
-* [[Spur-throated locust]], ''Australis procera'' - Australia
+* [[Anacridium melanorhodon|Sahelian tree locust]] ''Anacridium melanorhodon''
+* [[Spur-throated locust]], ''Australis procera''
-* Three locusts ''[[Anacridium]]'' spp.
+* [[Sudan plague locust]] ''Aiolopus simulatrix''
-** ''[[Anacridium aegyptium]]''
-** ''[[Anacridium melanorhodon]]''
-** ''[[Anacridium wernerellum]]''
+The [[Senegalese grasshopper]] (''Oedaleus senegalensis'') also often displays locust-like behaviour in the Sahel region.
-== Borderline species ==
-* [[Senegalese grasshopper]] ''Oedaleus senegalensis'' - often displays locust-like behaviour in the Sahel region
-* [[Sudan plague locust]] ''Aiolopus simulatrix'' - occasionally behaves like a locust in eastern Sudan
-==Subspecies of ''Locusta migratoria''==
-* ''Locusta migratoria burmana'' <small> Ramme, 1951  </small>
-* ''Locusta migratoria capito'' <small> Saussure, 1884  </small> (Madagascar)
-* ''Locusta migratoria cinerascens'' <small> Fabricius, 1781 </small> (Italy, Spain)
-* ''Locusta migratoria manilensis'' <small> (Meyen, 1835) 1 </small> (eastern Asia)
-* ''Locusta migratoria migratoria'' <small> (Linnaeus, 1758) </small>  (West and Central Asia, eastern Europe)
-* ''Locusta migratoria migratorioides'' <small> (Fairmaire & L.J. Reiche, 1849) </small> (mainland Africa and Atlantic islands)
-* ''Locusta migratoria tibetensis'' <small>Chen, Yonglin, 1963 </small>
-* ''Locusta migratoria danica'' <small>(Linnaeus, 1767) </small> = ''Locusta m. migratoria'' <small> (Linnaeus, 1758) </small>
-* ''Locusta migratoria gallica'' <small> Remaudičre, 1947 </small> =  ''Locusta m. migratoria'' <small> (Linnaeus, 1758) </small>
-* ''Locusta migratoria solitaria'' <small> Carthy, 1955 </small> = ''Locusta m. migratoria'' <small> (Linnaeus, 1758) </small>
-==Gallery==
-<gallery>
-Image:Acrididae - Locusta migratoria cinerascens-female.JPG|''Locusta migratoria cinerascens'', female
-Image:Acrididae - Locusta migratoria cinerascens-male.JPG|''Locusta migratoria cinerascens'', male
-File:Locusta m. migratorioides female.jpg|''Locusta migratoria migratorioides'', female
-File:Locusta migratoria migratorioides male.jpg|''Locusta migratoria migratorioides'', male
-</gallery>
 ==See also==
-* [[Australian Plague Locust Commission]] (APLC)
 * [[2004 locust outbreak]]
 * [[2013 Madagascar locust plague]]
+* [[Australian Plague Locust Commission]] (APLC)
+==Footnotes==
+{{Reflist}}
 == References ==
-* Walker, Annette, ''The Reed Handbook of Common New Zealand Insects'', Reed Books, 2000 ISBN 0-7900-0718-5
+*{{cite book |last=Walker |first=Annette |title=The Reed Handbook of Common New Zealand Insects |year=2000 |publisher=Reed |location=Auckland |isbn=0-7900-0718-5 |coauthors=Heath, Eric}}
-* Steedman, Alison (Ed.) 1988. ''Locust Handbook'' (2nd Edn). London: Overseas Development Natural Resources Institute, 180p. (ISBN 0-85954-232-7)
+*{{cite book |title=Locust Handbook |year=1988 |publisher=Overseas Development Natural Resources Institute |location=London |isbn=0-85954-232-7 |edition=2nd |editor=Steedman, Alison}}
 == External links ==
@@ Line 98: / Line 97: @@
 * [http://www.biolib.cz/cz/formsearch/?action=execute&searcharea=1&string=locusta+migratoria Biolib]
 * [http://www.faunaeur.org/full_results.php?id=234721 Fauna Europaea]
 * Genus ''Locusta'' at [http://orthoptera.speciesfile.org/Common/basic/Taxa.aspx?TaxonNameID=51512 Orthoptera Species File on Line]
 [[Category:Locusts]]
@@ Line 107: / Line 106: @@
 [[Category:Orthoptera of Africa]]
 [[Category:Animals described in 1758]]
-{{Reflist}}