Avian botulism: Difference between revisions
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'''Avian Botulism''' is a strain of [[botulism]] that affects wild and captive bird populations, most notably waterfowl. This is a paralytic disease brought on by the [[Botulinum neurotoxin]] (BoNt) of the bacterium ''[[Clostridium botulinum]]''.<ref name="Kadlec 2002">{{cite journal|last=Kadlec|first=John|title=Avian Botulism in Great Salt Lake Marshes: Perspectives and Possible Mechanisms|journal=Wildlife Society Bulletin|year=2002|volume=30|issue=3|pages=983–989|accessdate=20 October 2013}}</ref> ''C. botulinum'' can fall into one of 7 different types which are strains A through G.<ref name="LaFrancois (2011)">{{cite journal|last=LaFrancois|first=Brenda|coauthors=Stephen C. Riley, David S. Blehert, Anne E. Ballmann|title=Links between type E botulism outbreaks, lake levels, and surface water temperatures in Lake Michigan, 1963–2008|journal=Journal of Great Lakes Research|year=2011|volume=37|pages=96-91|accessdate=20 October 2013}}</ref> Type C BoNt is most frequently associated with waterfowl mortality.<ref name="Rocke 2000"/> The Type E strain is also commonly associated with avian outbreaks and is frequently found in fish species which is why most outbreaks occur in [[piscivorous]] birds.<ref name="Yule 2006">{{cite journal|last=Yule|first=Adam|coauthors=Ian K. Barker, John W. Austin, Richard D. Moccia|title=Toxicity of Clostridium Botulinum Type E Neurotoxin to Great Lakes Fish: Implications for Avian Botulism|journal=Journal of Wildlife Disease|year=2006|volume=42|issue=3|pages=479–493|accessdate=20 October 2013}}</ref> |
'''Avian Botulism''' is a strain of [[botulism]] that affects wild and captive bird populations, most notably waterfowl. This is a paralytic disease brought on by the [[Botulinum neurotoxin]] (BoNt) of the bacterium ''[[Clostridium botulinum]]''.<ref name="Kadlec 2002">{{cite journal|last=Kadlec|first=John|title=Avian Botulism in Great Salt Lake Marshes: Perspectives and Possible Mechanisms|journal=Wildlife Society Bulletin|year=2002|volume=30|issue=3|pages=983–989|accessdate=20 October 2013}}</ref> ''C. botulinum'' can fall into one of 7 different types which are strains A through G.<ref name="LaFrancois (2011)">{{cite journal|last=LaFrancois|first=Brenda|coauthors=Stephen C. Riley, David S. Blehert, Anne E. Ballmann|title=Links between type E botulism outbreaks, lake levels, and surface water temperatures in Lake Michigan, 1963–2008|journal=Journal of Great Lakes Research|year=2011|volume=37|pages=96-91|accessdate=20 October 2013}}</ref> Type C BoNt is most frequently associated with waterfowl mortality.<ref name="Rocke 2000"/> The Type E strain is also commonly associated with avian outbreaks and is frequently found in fish species which is why most outbreaks occur in [[piscivorous]] birds.<ref name="Yule 2006">{{cite journal|last=Yule|first=Adam|coauthors=Ian K. Barker, John W. Austin, Richard D. Moccia|title=Toxicity of Clostridium Botulinum Type E Neurotoxin to Great Lakes Fish: Implications for Avian Botulism|journal=Journal of Wildlife Disease|year=2006|volume=42|issue=3|pages=479–493|accessdate=20 October 2013|doi=10.7589/0090-3558-42.3.479}}</ref> |
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Avian Botulism occurs all over the world and its understanding is important for wildlife managers, hunters, bird watchers, and anyone who owns wetland property as this disease can account for over 1,000,000 waterbird deaths in a year.<ref name="Rocke 2000">{{cite journal|last=Rocke|first=Tonie|coauthors=Michael D. Samuel, Pamela K. Swift, Gregory S. Yarris|title=Efficacy of a Type C botulism vaccine in green-winged teal|journal=Journal of WIldlife Diseases|year=2000|volume=36|issue=3|pages=489–493|accessdate=24 October 2013}}</ref> |
Avian Botulism occurs all over the world and its understanding is important for wildlife managers, hunters, bird watchers, and anyone who owns wetland property as this disease can account for over 1,000,000 waterbird deaths in a year.<ref name="Rocke 2000">{{cite journal|last=Rocke|first=Tonie|coauthors=Michael D. Samuel, Pamela K. Swift, Gregory S. Yarris|title=Efficacy of a Type C botulism vaccine in green-winged teal|journal=Journal of WIldlife Diseases|year=2000|volume=36|issue=3|pages=489–493|accessdate=24 October 2013|doi=10.7589/0090-3558-36.3.489}}</ref> |
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== Prevalence and distribution == |
== Prevalence and distribution == |
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Avian botulism occurs all over the world and is especially predominant in North American wetlands. The degree of avian botulism outbreaks in populations is largely determined by how favorable conditions are for ''C. botulinum''.<ref name="Soos 2006">{{cite journal|last=Soos|first=Catherine|author2=Gary Wobeser|title=Identification of Primary Substrate in the Initiation of Avian Botulism Outbreaks|journal=Journal of Wildlife Management|year=2006|volume=70|issue=1|pages=43–53|accessdate=24 October 2013}}</ref> Ideal conditions for the presence of the BoNt carrying bacterium consist of low-oxygen, high-protein available substrate.<ref name="Kadlec 2002" /> This is common of shallow and stagnant waterways. Other factors such as pH and temperature, as well as a likely number of unknown factors contribute to the prevalence of outbreaks.<ref name="Soos 2006" /> Geographic locations with great amounts of this habitat can be assumed to have a greater number of outbreaks. Notable locations include the [[Great Lakes]], North Dakota, Japan, South Korea, and Saskatchewan. While this is frequently the trend there is also evidence of BoNt outbreaks in well-oxygenated lakes with low temperatures.<ref name="Soos 2006" /> Furthermore, ideal habitats like those described do not all feature avian botulism in their waterfowl populations which supports there are still unknown factors at play.<ref name="Soos 2006" /> |
Avian botulism occurs all over the world and is especially predominant in North American wetlands. The degree of avian botulism outbreaks in populations is largely determined by how favorable conditions are for ''C. botulinum''.<ref name="Soos 2006">{{cite journal|last=Soos|first=Catherine|author2=Gary Wobeser|title=Identification of Primary Substrate in the Initiation of Avian Botulism Outbreaks|journal=Journal of Wildlife Management|year=2006|volume=70|issue=1|pages=43–53|accessdate=24 October 2013|doi=10.2193/0022-541x(2006)70[43:iopsit]2.0.co;2}}</ref> Ideal conditions for the presence of the BoNt carrying bacterium consist of low-oxygen, high-protein available substrate.<ref name="Kadlec 2002" /> This is common of shallow and stagnant waterways. Other factors such as pH and temperature, as well as a likely number of unknown factors contribute to the prevalence of outbreaks.<ref name="Soos 2006" /> Geographic locations with great amounts of this habitat can be assumed to have a greater number of outbreaks. Notable locations include the [[Great Lakes]], North Dakota, Japan, South Korea, and Saskatchewan. While this is frequently the trend there is also evidence of BoNt outbreaks in well-oxygenated lakes with low temperatures.<ref name="Soos 2006" /> Furthermore, ideal habitats like those described do not all feature avian botulism in their waterfowl populations which supports there are still unknown factors at play.<ref name="Soos 2006" /> |
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== Transmission == |
== Transmission == |
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Avian botulism is not contagious in that it is not spread from bird to bird. Instead it is spread to birds through their consumptions of maggots infected with the toxin.<ref name="Takeda 2005">{{cite journal|last=Takeda|first=Masato|coauthors=Kentaro Tsukamoto, Tomoko Kohda, Miki Matsui, Masafumi Mukamoto, Shunji Kozaki|title=Characterization of the Nerotoxin produced by isolates associated with avian botulism|journal=Avian Diseases|year=2005|volume=49|pages=376–381|accessdate=24 October 2013}}</ref> Maggots become infected by feeding on substrates and organic material that host the Type C BoNt. Huge die offs caused by BoNt are the result of this maggot cycle. When an infected bird dies the maggots that feed off of it become infected themselves. These maggots are in turn consumed by additional birds. Thus with every infected carcass brings several infected maggots which increases the number of birds that can contract the disease.<ref name="Takeda 2005" /> In this way massive outbreaks can occur. |
Avian botulism is not contagious in that it is not spread from bird to bird. Instead it is spread to birds through their consumptions of maggots infected with the toxin.<ref name="Takeda 2005">{{cite journal|last=Takeda|first=Masato|coauthors=Kentaro Tsukamoto, Tomoko Kohda, Miki Matsui, Masafumi Mukamoto, Shunji Kozaki|title=Characterization of the Nerotoxin produced by isolates associated with avian botulism|journal=Avian Diseases|year=2005|volume=49|pages=376–381|accessdate=24 October 2013|doi=10.1637/7347-022305r1.1}}</ref> Maggots become infected by feeding on substrates and organic material that host the Type C BoNt. Huge die offs caused by BoNt are the result of this maggot cycle. When an infected bird dies the maggots that feed off of it become infected themselves. These maggots are in turn consumed by additional birds. Thus with every infected carcass brings several infected maggots which increases the number of birds that can contract the disease.<ref name="Takeda 2005" /> In this way massive outbreaks can occur. |
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== Clinical signs == |
== Clinical signs == |
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The botulinum neurotoxin is lethal because it causes paralysis. Field identification involves locating birds showing [[flaccidity]] in the legs, wings and neck, as well as the presence of protuberant [[nictitating membrane]].<ref name="Work 2010">{{cite journal|last=Work|first=Thierry|coauthors=John L. Klavitter, Michelle H. Reynolds, David Blehert|title=AVIAN BOTULISM: A CASE STUDY IN TRANSLOCATED ENDANGERED LAYSAN DUCKS (ANAS LAYSANENSIS) ON MIDWAY ATOLL|journal=Journal of Wildlife Diseases|year=2010|volume=46|issue=2|pages=499–506|accessdate=25 October 2013}}</ref> The presence of several dozen, or even hundreds, of fresh waterbird carcasses is the stereotypical sign an outbreak has occurred. In this case the specimens need to be taken to disease laboratory to determine the cause of mortality. Most commonly, detection of ''C. botulinum'' in carcasses during lab work is accomplished through analysis of [[polymerase chain reaction]]s (PRC) and is often the most successful method.<ref name="Franciosa 1996">{{cite journal|last=Franciosa|first=G|coauthors=L. Fenicia, C. Caldiani, P. Aureli|title=PCR for detection of Clostridium botulinum type C in avian and environmental samples|journal=Journal of Clinical Microbiology|year=1996|volume=34|issue=4|pages=882–885|accessdate=25 October 2013}}</ref> |
The botulinum neurotoxin is lethal because it causes paralysis. Field identification involves locating birds showing [[flaccidity]] in the legs, wings and neck, as well as the presence of protuberant [[nictitating membrane]].<ref name="Work 2010">{{cite journal|last=Work|first=Thierry|coauthors=John L. Klavitter, Michelle H. Reynolds, David Blehert|title=AVIAN BOTULISM: A CASE STUDY IN TRANSLOCATED ENDANGERED LAYSAN DUCKS (ANAS LAYSANENSIS) ON MIDWAY ATOLL|journal=Journal of Wildlife Diseases|year=2010|volume=46|issue=2|pages=499–506|accessdate=25 October 2013|doi=10.7589/0090-3558-46.2.499}}</ref> The presence of several dozen, or even hundreds, of fresh waterbird carcasses is the stereotypical sign an outbreak has occurred. In this case the specimens need to be taken to disease laboratory to determine the cause of mortality. Most commonly, detection of ''C. botulinum'' in carcasses during lab work is accomplished through analysis of [[polymerase chain reaction]]s (PRC) and is often the most successful method.<ref name="Franciosa 1996">{{cite journal|last=Franciosa|first=G|coauthors=L. Fenicia, C. Caldiani, P. Aureli|title=PCR for detection of Clostridium botulinum type C in avian and environmental samples|journal=Journal of Clinical Microbiology|year=1996|volume=34|issue=4|pages=882–885|accessdate=25 October 2013}}</ref> |
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== Prevention and control == |
== Prevention and control == |
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Revision as of 09:23, 8 May 2014
Avian Botulism is a strain of botulism that affects wild and captive bird populations, most notably waterfowl. This is a paralytic disease brought on by the Botulinum neurotoxin (BoNt) of the bacterium Clostridium botulinum.[1] C. botulinum can fall into one of 7 different types which are strains A through G.[2] Type C BoNt is most frequently associated with waterfowl mortality.[3] The Type E strain is also commonly associated with avian outbreaks and is frequently found in fish species which is why most outbreaks occur in piscivorous birds.[4]
Avian Botulism occurs all over the world and its understanding is important for wildlife managers, hunters, bird watchers, and anyone who owns wetland property as this disease can account for over 1,000,000 waterbird deaths in a year.[3]
Prevalence and distribution
Avian botulism occurs all over the world and is especially predominant in North American wetlands. The degree of avian botulism outbreaks in populations is largely determined by how favorable conditions are for C. botulinum.[5] Ideal conditions for the presence of the BoNt carrying bacterium consist of low-oxygen, high-protein available substrate.[1] This is common of shallow and stagnant waterways. Other factors such as pH and temperature, as well as a likely number of unknown factors contribute to the prevalence of outbreaks.[5] Geographic locations with great amounts of this habitat can be assumed to have a greater number of outbreaks. Notable locations include the Great Lakes, North Dakota, Japan, South Korea, and Saskatchewan. While this is frequently the trend there is also evidence of BoNt outbreaks in well-oxygenated lakes with low temperatures.[5] Furthermore, ideal habitats like those described do not all feature avian botulism in their waterfowl populations which supports there are still unknown factors at play.[5]
Transmission
Avian botulism is not contagious in that it is not spread from bird to bird. Instead it is spread to birds through their consumptions of maggots infected with the toxin.[6] Maggots become infected by feeding on substrates and organic material that host the Type C BoNt. Huge die offs caused by BoNt are the result of this maggot cycle. When an infected bird dies the maggots that feed off of it become infected themselves. These maggots are in turn consumed by additional birds. Thus with every infected carcass brings several infected maggots which increases the number of birds that can contract the disease.[6] In this way massive outbreaks can occur.
Clinical signs
The botulinum neurotoxin is lethal because it causes paralysis. Field identification involves locating birds showing flaccidity in the legs, wings and neck, as well as the presence of protuberant nictitating membrane.[7] The presence of several dozen, or even hundreds, of fresh waterbird carcasses is the stereotypical sign an outbreak has occurred. In this case the specimens need to be taken to disease laboratory to determine the cause of mortality. Most commonly, detection of C. botulinum in carcasses during lab work is accomplished through analysis of polymerase chain reactions (PRC) and is often the most successful method.[8]
Prevention and control
The presence of avian botulism is extremely hard to detect before an outbreak. Frequent surveillance of sites at risk is needed for early detection of the disease in order to take action and remove carcasses.[7] Vaccines are also developed, but they have limited effectiveness in stemming outbreaks in wild waterbird populations.[3]
References
- ^ a b Kadlec, John (2002). "Avian Botulism in Great Salt Lake Marshes: Perspectives and Possible Mechanisms". Wildlife Society Bulletin. 30 (3): 983–989.
{{cite journal}}:|access-date=requires|url=(help) - ^ LaFrancois, Brenda (2011). "Links between type E botulism outbreaks, lake levels, and surface water temperatures in Lake Michigan, 1963–2008". Journal of Great Lakes Research. 37: 96–91.
{{cite journal}}:|access-date=requires|url=(help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - ^ a b c Rocke, Tonie (2000). "Efficacy of a Type C botulism vaccine in green-winged teal". Journal of WIldlife Diseases. 36 (3): 489–493. doi:10.7589/0090-3558-36.3.489.
{{cite journal}}:|access-date=requires|url=(help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - ^ Yule, Adam (2006). "Toxicity of Clostridium Botulinum Type E Neurotoxin to Great Lakes Fish: Implications for Avian Botulism". Journal of Wildlife Disease. 42 (3): 479–493. doi:10.7589/0090-3558-42.3.479.
{{cite journal}}:|access-date=requires|url=(help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - ^ a b c d Soos, Catherine; Gary Wobeser (2006). "Identification of Primary Substrate in the Initiation of Avian Botulism Outbreaks". Journal of Wildlife Management. 70 (1): 43–53. doi:10.2193/0022-541x(2006)70[43:iopsit]2.0.co;2.
{{cite journal}}:|access-date=requires|url=(help) - ^ a b Takeda, Masato (2005). "Characterization of the Nerotoxin produced by isolates associated with avian botulism". Avian Diseases. 49: 376–381. doi:10.1637/7347-022305r1.1.
{{cite journal}}:|access-date=requires|url=(help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - ^ a b Work, Thierry (2010). "AVIAN BOTULISM: A CASE STUDY IN TRANSLOCATED ENDANGERED LAYSAN DUCKS (ANAS LAYSANENSIS) ON MIDWAY ATOLL". Journal of Wildlife Diseases. 46 (2): 499–506. doi:10.7589/0090-3558-46.2.499.
{{cite journal}}:|access-date=requires|url=(help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - ^ Franciosa, G (1996). "PCR for detection of Clostridium botulinum type C in avian and environmental samples". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 34 (4): 882–885.
{{cite journal}}:|access-date=requires|url=(help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help)