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'''Acrania''' is a rare [[congenital disorder]] that occurs in the human fetus in which the flat bones in the [[Human cranium|cranial vault]] are either completely or partially absent.<ref name="Arch">{{cite journal | date = Mar 2005 | title = none | url = | journal = Arch Gynecol Obstet | volume = 271 | issue = 3| pages = 256–8 }}</ref> The [[cerebral hemisphere]]s develop completely but abnormally.<ref name="Arch"/> The condition is frequently, though not always, associated with [[anencephaly]]. The fetus is said to suffer from acrania if it meets the following criteria: the fetus should have a perfectly normal facial bone, a normal cervical column but without the fetal skull and a volume of brain tissue equivalent to at least one third of the normal brain size.<ref name="Kwon">[http://www.thefetus.net/page.php?id=77 Acrania: review of 13 cases] - Tae-Hee Kwon, MD*, Jim King, MD, Philippe Jeanty, MD, PhD</ref>
'''Acrania''' is a rare [[congenital disorder]] that occurs in the human fetus in which the flat bones in the [[Human cranium|cranial vault]] are either completely or partially absent.<ref name="Bianca2005">{{cite journal |date=2005 |title=Prenatal and postnatal findings of acrania |journal=Archives of Gynecology and Obstetrics |volume=271 |issue=3 |pages=257–259 |first1=Sebastiano |last1=Bianca |first2=Carmela |last2=Ingegnosi |first3=Salvatore |last3=Auditore |last4=Reale |first4=Armando |first5=M.&nbsp;G. |last5=Galasso |first6=Giovanni |last6=Bartoloni |first7=A. |last7=Arancio |first8=Giuseppe |last8=Ettore |issn=0932-0067 |doi=10.1007/s00404-004-0621-2}}</ref> The [[cerebral hemisphere]]s develop completely but abnormally.<ref name="Bianca2005"/> The condition is frequently, though not always, associated with [[anencephaly]]. The fetus is said to suffer from acrania if it meets the following criteria: the fetus should have a perfectly normal facial bone, a normal cervical column but without the fetal skull and a volume of brain tissue equivalent to at least one third of the normal brain size.<ref name="Kwon1991">{{cite web |url=http://www.thefetus.net/page.php?id=77 |title=Acrania: Review of 13 Cases |work=The Fetus |date=1991 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090827010518/www.thefetus.net/page.php?id=77 |archive-date=2009-08-27 |dead-url=yes |first1=Tae Hee |last1=Kwon |first2=Jim |last2=King |first3=Philippe |last3=Jeanty |volume=1 |issn=1057-137X}}</ref>

[[File:Anencefalia.jpg|thumb|right|This patient suffers from both acrania and [[anencephaly]].]]
[[File:Anencefalia.jpg|thumb|right|This patient suffers from both acrania and [[anencephaly]].]]


==Diagnosis==
==Diagnosis==
Acrania can be diagnosed early in pregnancy through an [[ultrasound]]. This abnormality appears during the beginning or end of the fourth week of the fetus's development. An absence of the skull is needed in order to make a diagnosis. A presence of brain tissue will confirm the diagnosis of Acrania and differentiate it from other developmental problems such as [[Anencephaly]].<ref name="Kwon"/>
Acrania can be diagnosed early in pregnancy through an [[ultrasound]]. This abnormality appears during the beginning or end of the fourth week of the fetus's development. An absence of the skull is needed in order to make a diagnosis. A presence of brain tissue will confirm the diagnosis of acrania and differentiate it from other developmental problems such as [[anencephaly]].<ref name="Kwon1991"/>


==Prognosis==
==Prognosis==
Prognosis is poor. Previous research suggested a 100% mortality rate for those with Acrania. However, at least one case of acrania was treated successfully at birth. Current prognosis for this patient includes developmental delays with normal appearance and intelligence.<ref>http://archive.ksdk.com/news/article/361653/9/Medical-miracle-St-Louis-baby-beats-deadly-disorder</ref> This disease is rare, occurring in 1 in 20,000 live births.<ref>Romero R, Pilu G, Jeanty J, et al. Prenatal Diagnosis of Congenital Anomalies. Appleton & Lange, Norwalk, Connecticut, 1988. pp 75-76.</ref> In order to better manage an Acrania diagnosis, early detection is of extreme importance so that actions may be taken to help the mother and child.<ref name="Kwon"/> Families may choose to either terminate the pregnancy, or carry the child to term. Acrania may cause a fetus to spontaneously abort before reaching term.<ref name="Kwon"/>
Prognosis is poor. Previous research suggested a 100% mortality rate for those with acrania However, at least one case of acrania was treated successfully at birth. Current prognosis for this patient includes developmental delays with normal appearance and intelligence.<ref name="Yarchin2013">{{cite web |url=http://archive.ksdk.com/news/article/361653/9/Medical-miracle-St-Louis-baby-beats-deadly-disorder |title=Aliyah Wilson beats deadly disorder |date=2013-02-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150714233741/archive.ksdk.com/news/article/361653/9/Medical-miracle-St-Louis-baby-beats-deadly-disorder |archive-date=2015-07-14 |dead-url=no |first=Ashley |last=Yarchin |publisher=KSDK-TV |location=Saint Louis, Missouri}}</ref> This disease is rare, occurring in 1 in 20,000 live births.<ref name="Romero1988">{{cite book |url=http://sonoworld.com/Client/Fetus/files/pcda/PDCA_CNS.pdf |title=Prenatal Diagnosis of Congenital Anomalies |date=1988 |pages=75–76 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120911172114/sonoworld.com/Client/Fetus/files/pcda/PDCA_CNS.pdf#page=77 |archive-date=2012-09-11 |dead-url=no |chapter=Acrania |chapter-url=http://sonoworld.com/Client/Fetus/files/pcda/PDCA_CNS.pdf#page=77 |first1=Roberto |last1=Romero |first2=Gianluigi |last2=Pilu |first3=Philippe |last3=Jeanty |first4=Alessandro |last4=Ghidini |first5=John C. |last5=Hobbins |publisher=Appleton & Lange |location=East Norwalk, Connecticut |format=PDF |isbn=978-0-8385-7921-3 |lccn=87-14557 |oclc=571744822 |ol=25881951M}}</ref> In order to better manage an acrania diagnosis, early detection is of extreme importance so that actions may be taken to help the mother and child.<ref name="Kwon1991"/> Families may choose to either terminate the pregnancy, or carry the child to term. acrania may cause a fetus to spontaneously abort before reaching term.<ref name="Kwon1991"/>


==Etiology==
==Etiology==
Line 28: Line 29:


===Amniotic band syndrome===
===Amniotic band syndrome===
⚫
During [[amniotic band syndrome]] ({{abbr|ABS|amniotic band syndrome}}) fibrous bands may entrap various parts of the developing fetus causing malformations. When these fibrous bands form around the developing skull, the bones will not form properly. {{abbr|ABS|amniotic band syndrome}} occurring in the developing brain neural tissue is one cause of acrania.<ref name="Cincore2003">{{cite journal |title=Prenatal Diagnosis of Acrania Associated with Amniotic Band Syndrome |work=Obstetrics & Gynecology |date=2003 |pages=1176–1178 |first1=Verdelia |last1=Cincore |first2=Anthanasios P. |last2=Ninios |first3=Jacqueline |last3=Pavlik |first4=Chaur-Dong |last4=Hsu |publisher=Elsevier |volume=102 |issue=5&nbsp;(part&nbsp;2) |doi=10.1016/S0029-7844(03)00118-2 |issn=0029-7844 |oclc=110364612 |pmid=14607048 |subscription=yes}}</ref> When {{abbr|ABS|amniotic band syndrome}} is the cause of acrania the fibrous bands cannot be detected through ultrasound.<ref name="Cincore2003"/>

⚫
During [[Amniotic band syndrome|amniotic band syndrome (ABS)]] fibrous bands may entrap various parts of the developing fetus causing malformations. When these fibrous bands form around the developing skull, the bones will not form properly. ABS occurring in the developing brain neural tissue is one cause of Acrania.<ref name="Abs">Cincore, Verdelia MD; Ninios, Anthanasios P. MD; Pavlik, Jacqueline; Hsu, Chaur-Dong MD, MPH(2003); Prenatal diagnosis of acrania associated with amniotic band syndrome;Obstetrics&Gynecology</ref> When ABS is the cause of Acrania, the fibrous bands cannot be detected through ultrasound.<ref name="Abs"/>


===Failure of the ectodermal mesenchyme to migrate===
===Failure of the ectodermal mesenchyme to migrate===
⚫
[[Mesenchyme]] is formed in the developing embryo and will eventually become cartilage and bone. When ectodermal mesenchyme fails to migrate into the head region of the embryo, the skull will not be able to form. What exactly causes the failure of mesenchymal migration is unknown.<ref name="Kwon1991"/>

⚫
[[Mesenchyme]] is formed in the developing embryo and will eventually become cartilage and bone. When ectodermal mesenchyme fails to migrate into the head region of the embryo, the skull will not be able to form. What exactly causes the failure of mesenchymal migration is unknown.<ref name="Kwon"/>


==Embryology and mechanism==
==Embryology and mechanism==
During the fourth week of human development the neuropore in a normally developing fetus closes. When this process is either interrupted or never initiated, Acrania occurs.<ref name="Kwon"/> The desmocranium becomes a membranous coverage instead of forming the epidermis of the scalp. Whether from being blocked by amniotic bands or by just not initiating, the migration of [[mesenchyme]] under the [[ectoderm]] does not occur.<ref name="Kwon"/> Because this migration does not occur, the skull, and all involved muscles, are never formed.<ref name="Kwon"/> Without the presence of the [[neurocranium]], the brain fails to separate into two separate lobes. The hindbrain proceeds to develop normally, allowing for the child to be carried to term, but the [[diencephalon]] and ocular lobe remain small and underdeveloped.<ref name="Kwon"/>
During the fourth week of human development the neuropore in a normally developing fetus closes. When this process is either interrupted or never initiated, acrania occurs.<ref name="Kwon1991"/> The desmocranium becomes a membranous coverage instead of forming the epidermis of the scalp. Whether from being blocked by amniotic bands or by just not initiating, the migration of [[mesenchyme]] under the [[ectoderm]] does not occur.<ref name="Kwon1991"/> Because this migration does not occur, the skull, and all involved muscles, are never formed.<ref name="Kwon1991"/> Without the presence of the [[neurocranium]], the brain fails to separate into two separate lobes. The hindbrain proceeds to develop normally, allowing for the child to be carried to term, but the [[diencephalon]] and ocular lobe remain small and underdeveloped.<ref name="Kwon1991"/>


==Genetics==
==Genetics==
There are no known family ties in acrania and recurrence rates are extremely low. Not much is known about the exact mechanism involved in acrania. It is hypothesized that like other developmental malformations, there are multiple origins for acrania.
There are no known family ties in acrania and recurrence rates are extremely low. Not much is known about the exact mechanism involved in acrania. It is hypothesized that like other developmental malformations, there are multiple origins for acrania.

⚫
Recent work has identified mutations in the [[HHAT]] gene that have caused Acrania along with [[holoprosencephaly]] and [[agnathia]].<ref name="Denis">{{cite journal |vauthors=Dennis JF, Kurosaka H, Iulianella A, Pace J, Thomas N, etal | year = 2012 | title = Mutations in Hedgehog Acyltransferase (Hhat) Perturb Hedgehog Signaling, Resulting in Severe Acrania-Holoprosencephaly-Agnathia Craniofacial Defects | url = | journal = PLoS Genet | volume = 8 | issue = 10| page = e1002927 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pgen.1002927 }}</ref> The mutation in [[HHAT]] which causes this disease is a loss-of-function mutation.<ref name="Denis"/> Before this discovery in 2010, HHAT was known to play a role in the [[Sonic Hedgehog|Sonic Hedgehog Pathway]]. When HHAT contains a loss-of-function mutation, less HHAT protein (Hedgehog Acyltransferase) is produced. HHAT is necessary for the production of Hedgehog (Hh) proteins post-transcriptionally. As HHAT production decreases, production of long-range Hh proteins decreases proportionally. Decreases in Hh production disturb the production of [[Extracellular signal-regulated kinases|Erk]], [[Bone morphogenetic protein|Bmp]], and [[Fibroblast growth factor|Fgf]], all of which play important roles in craniofacial patterning. Disruption of these pathways leads to abnormal bone and cartilage formation causing Acrania and multiple other craniofacial patterning problems.<ref name="Denis"/>
⚫
[[File:Geneticcounseling.jpg|thumb|right|A family undergoes genetic counseling after their first child is born with Acrania.]]

⚫
Recent work has identified mutations in the [[HHAT|{{abbr|HHAT|hedgehog acyltransferase}}]] gene that have caused acrania along with [[holoprosencephaly]] and [[agnathia]].<ref name="Dennis2012">{{cite journal |first1=Jennifer F. |last1=Dennis |first2=Hiroshi |last2=Kurosaka |first3=Angelo |last3=Iulianella |first4=Jennifer |last4=Pace |first5=Nancy |last5=Thomas |first6=Sharon |last6=Beckham |first7=Trevor |last7=Williams |first8=Paul A. |last8=Trainor |editor-first=David R. |editor-last=Beier |date=2012 |title=Mutations in ''Hedgehog Acyltransferase'' ({{not a typo|H|hat}}) Perturb Hedgehog Signaling, Resulting in Severe Acrania-Holoprosencephaly-Agnathia Craniofacial Defects |journal=PLoS Genetics |volume=8 |issue=10 |at=e1002927 |doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.1002927 |issn=1553-7404 |pmc=3464201 |pmid=23055936}}</ref> The mutation in [[HHAT|{{abbr|HHAT|hedgehog acyltransferase}}]] which causes this disease is a loss-of-function mutation.<ref name="Dennis2012"/> Before this discovery in 2010, {{abbr|HHAT|hedgehog acyltransferase}} was known to play a role in the [[Sonic Hedgehog Pathway]]. When {{abbr|HHAT|hedgehog acyltransferase}} contains a loss-of-function mutation, less {{abbr|HHAT|hedgehog acyltransferase}} protein (Hedgehog Acyltransferase) is produced. {{abbr|HHAT|hedgehog acyltransferase}} is necessary for the production of Hedgehog ({{abbr|Hh|Hedgehog}}) proteins post-transcriptionally. As {{abbr|HHAT|hedgehog acyltransferase}} production decreases, production of long-range {{abbr|Hh|Hedgehog}} proteins decreases proportionally. Decreases in {{abbr|Hh|Hedgehog}} production disturb the production of [[extracellular signal-regulated kinases]], [[bone morphogenetic protein]]s, and [[fibroblast growth factor]]s, all of which play important roles in craniofacial patterning. Disruption of these pathways leads to abnormal bone and cartilage formation causing acrania and multiple other craniofacial patterning problems.<ref name="Dennis2012"/>


===Genetic counseling===
===Genetic counseling===
Little genetic counseling can be offered for Acrania because the genetic origins are not fully understood. In order to make genetic counseling for families easier this disease is often differentially diagnosed with other diseases that can occur at the same time such as [[anencephaly]] and [[Acalvaria]], though these diseases may not always occur simultaneously.<ref name="Arch"/> While this disease is tragic, reoccurrence rates are extremely low so genetic counseling is not always necessary.<ref name="Arch"/>
Little genetic counseling can be offered for acrania because the genetic origins are not fully understood. In order to make genetic counseling for families easier this disease is often differentially diagnosed with other diseases that can occur at the same time such as [[anencephaly]] and [[acalvaria]], though these diseases may not always occur simultaneously.<ref name="Bianca2005"/> While this disease is tragic, reoccurrence rates are extremely low so genetic counseling is not always necessary.<ref name="Bianca2005"/>

⚫
[[File:Geneticcounseling.jpg|thumb|left|A family undergoes genetic counseling after their first child is born with Acrania.]]
⚫
==References==
⚫
{{reflist|30em}}


==See also==
==See also==
* [[Acalvaria]]
* [[Acalvaria]]

⚫
==References==
⚫
{{reflist}}
* {{RareDiseases|361|Acalvaria (Acrania)}}
* {{RareDiseases|361|Acalvaria (Acrania)}}


Revision as of 22:36, 17 December 2015

"Headless" redirects here. For other uses, see Headless (disambiguation).
Acrania

Acrania is a rare congenital disorder that occurs in the human fetus in which the flat bones in the cranial vault are either completely or partially absent.[1] The cerebral hemispheres develop completely but abnormally.[1] The condition is frequently, though not always, associated with anencephaly. The fetus is said to suffer from acrania if it meets the following criteria: the fetus should have a perfectly normal facial bone, a normal cervical column but without the fetal skull and a volume of brain tissue equivalent to at least one third of the normal brain size.[2]

This patient suffers from both acrania and anencephaly.

Diagnosis

Acrania can be diagnosed early in pregnancy through an ultrasound. This abnormality appears during the beginning or end of the fourth week of the fetus's development. An absence of the skull is needed in order to make a diagnosis. A presence of brain tissue will confirm the diagnosis of acrania and differentiate it from other developmental problems such as anencephaly.[2]

Prognosis

Prognosis is poor. Previous research suggested a 100% mortality rate for those with acrania However, at least one case of acrania was treated successfully at birth. Current prognosis for this patient includes developmental delays with normal appearance and intelligence.[3] This disease is rare, occurring in 1 in 20,000 live births.[4] In order to better manage an acrania diagnosis, early detection is of extreme importance so that actions may be taken to help the mother and child.[2] Families may choose to either terminate the pregnancy, or carry the child to term. acrania may cause a fetus to spontaneously abort before reaching term.[2]

Etiology

There are two problems that may occur during development that cause acrania.

Amniotic band syndrome

During amniotic band syndrome (ABS) fibrous bands may entrap various parts of the developing fetus causing malformations. When these fibrous bands form around the developing skull, the bones will not form properly. ABS occurring in the developing brain neural tissue is one cause of acrania.[5] When ABS is the cause of acrania the fibrous bands cannot be detected through ultrasound.[5]

Failure of the ectodermal mesenchyme to migrate

Mesenchyme is formed in the developing embryo and will eventually become cartilage and bone. When ectodermal mesenchyme fails to migrate into the head region of the embryo, the skull will not be able to form. What exactly causes the failure of mesenchymal migration is unknown.[2]

Embryology and mechanism

During the fourth week of human development the neuropore in a normally developing fetus closes. When this process is either interrupted or never initiated, acrania occurs.[2] The desmocranium becomes a membranous coverage instead of forming the epidermis of the scalp. Whether from being blocked by amniotic bands or by just not initiating, the migration of mesenchyme under the ectoderm does not occur.[2] Because this migration does not occur, the skull, and all involved muscles, are never formed.[2] Without the presence of the neurocranium, the brain fails to separate into two separate lobes. The hindbrain proceeds to develop normally, allowing for the child to be carried to term, but the diencephalon and ocular lobe remain small and underdeveloped.[2]

Genetics

There are no known family ties in acrania and recurrence rates are extremely low. Not much is known about the exact mechanism involved in acrania. It is hypothesized that like other developmental malformations, there are multiple origins for acrania.

A family undergoes genetic counseling after their first child is born with Acrania.

Recent work has identified mutations in the HHAT gene that have caused acrania along with holoprosencephaly and agnathia.[6] The mutation in HHAT which causes this disease is a loss-of-function mutation.[6] Before this discovery in 2010, HHAT was known to play a role in the Sonic Hedgehog Pathway. When HHAT contains a loss-of-function mutation, less HHAT protein (Hedgehog Acyltransferase) is produced. HHAT is necessary for the production of Hedgehog (Hh) proteins post-transcriptionally. As HHAT production decreases, production of long-range Hh proteins decreases proportionally. Decreases in Hh production disturb the production of extracellular signal-regulated kinases, bone morphogenetic proteins, and fibroblast growth factors, all of which play important roles in craniofacial patterning. Disruption of these pathways leads to abnormal bone and cartilage formation causing acrania and multiple other craniofacial patterning problems.[6]

Genetic counseling

Little genetic counseling can be offered for acrania because the genetic origins are not fully understood. In order to make genetic counseling for families easier this disease is often differentially diagnosed with other diseases that can occur at the same time such as anencephaly and acalvaria, though these diseases may not always occur simultaneously.[1] While this disease is tragic, reoccurrence rates are extremely low so genetic counseling is not always necessary.[1]

References

  1. ^ a b c d Bianca, Sebastiano; Ingegnosi, Carmela; Auditore, Salvatore; Reale, Armando; Galasso, M. G.; Bartoloni, Giovanni; Arancio, A.; Ettore, Giuseppe (2005). "Prenatal and postnatal findings of acrania". Archives of Gynecology and Obstetrics. 271 (3): 257–259. doi:10.1007/s00404-004-0621-2. ISSN 0932-0067.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i Kwon, Tae Hee; King, Jim; Jeanty, Philippe (1991). "Acrania: Review of 13 Cases". The Fetus. ISSN 1057-137X. Archived from the original on 2009-08-27. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |dead-url= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  3. ^ Yarchin, Ashley (2013-02-07). "Aliyah Wilson beats deadly disorder". Saint Louis, Missouri: KSDK-TV. Archived from the original on 2015-07-14. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |dead-url= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  4. ^ Romero, Roberto; Pilu, Gianluigi; Jeanty, Philippe; Ghidini, Alessandro; Hobbins, John C. (1988). "Acrania" (PDF). Prenatal Diagnosis of Congenital Anomalies (PDF). East Norwalk, Connecticut: Appleton & Lange. pp. 75–76. ISBN 978-0-8385-7921-3. LCCN 87-14557. OCLC 571744822. OL 25881951M. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-09-11. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |dead-url= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  5. ^ a b Cincore, Verdelia; Ninios, Anthanasios P.; Pavlik, Jacqueline; Hsu, Chaur-Dong (2003). "Prenatal Diagnosis of Acrania Associated with Amniotic Band Syndrome". Obstetrics & Gynecology. 102 (5 (part 2)). Elsevier: 1176–1178. doi:10.1016/S0029-7844(03)00118-2. ISSN 0029-7844. OCLC 110364612. PMID 14607048. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |subscription= ignored (|url-access= suggested) (help)
  6. ^ a b c Dennis, Jennifer F.; Kurosaka, Hiroshi; Iulianella, Angelo; Pace, Jennifer; Thomas, Nancy; Beckham, Sharon; Williams, Trevor; Trainor, Paul A. (2012). Beier, David R. (ed.). "Mutations in Hedgehog Acyltransferase (Hhat) Perturb Hedgehog Signaling, Resulting in Severe Acrania-Holoprosencephaly-Agnathia Craniofacial Defects". PLoS Genetics. 8 (10). e1002927. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1002927. ISSN 1553-7404. PMC 3464201. PMID 23055936.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)

See also

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