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==Allopreening==
==Allopreening==
[[File:Starr 080606-6754 Ipomoea pes-caprae subsp. brasiliensis.jpg|thumb|left|Allopreening can strengthen pair bonds.]]
[[File:Starr 080606-6754 Ipomoea pes-caprae subsp. brasiliensis.jpg|thumb|left|Allopreening may help to strengthen [[pair bond]]s.]]
<!--[[File:Great Woodswallow group.jpg|thumb|right|...or flock membership.]]-->
<!--[[File:Great Woodswallow group.jpg|thumb|right|...or flock membership.]]-->


Allopreening is the preening of one bird by another.<ref name = "Campbell"/> Species from at least 43 families are known to engage in the mutual activity. A number of hypotheses have been advanced to explain the behavior: that it assists in effective grooming, that it assists in recognition of individuals, that it assists in recognition of mates or potential sexual partners, and that it assists in social communication, reducing or redirecting potential aggressive tendencies. Evidence suggests that different species may participate for different reasons, and that those reasons may change depending on the season and the individuals involved.<ref name = "Forsman"/> In most cases, allopreening involves members of the same species, although some cases of interspecific allopreening are known; the vast majority of these involve [[icterid]]s, though at least one instance of mutual grooming between a [[black vulture]] and a [[crested caracara]] has been documented.<ref name = "Ng"/>
Allopreening is the preening of one bird by another.<ref name = "Campbell"/> It is not particularly common among birds,<ref name = "Wilson"/> though species from at least 43 [[family (biology)|families]] are known to engage in the mutual activity. A number of hypotheses have been advanced to explain the behavior: that it assists in effective grooming, that it assists in recognition of individuals, that it assists in recognition of mates or potential sexual partners, and that it assists in social communication, reducing or redirecting potential aggressive tendencies. Evidence suggests that different species may participate for different reasons, and that those reasons may change depending on the season and the individuals involved.<ref name = "Forsman"/> In most cases, allopreening involves members of the same species, although some cases of interspecific allopreening are known; the vast majority of these involve [[icterid]]s, though at least one instance of mutual grooming between a [[black vulture]] and a [[crested caracara]] has been documented.<ref name = "Ng"/>


There is some evidence that allogrooming may help to keep in good condition those feathers that a bird cannot easily reach by itself; allogrooming activities tend to focus on the head and neck, for example.<ref name = "Loon"/><ref name = "Olsen"/> It may also help to remove [[ectoparasite]]s from those hard-to-reach areas. In one study, [[Macaroni penguin]]s that frequently allopreened had significantly fewer [[tick]]s on their heads and necks than birds that did not.<ref name = "Deeming"/>
There is some evidence that allogrooming may help to keep in good condition those feathers that a bird cannot easily reach by itself; allogrooming activities tend to focus on the head and neck, for example.<ref name = "Loon"/><ref name = "Olsen"/> It may also help to remove [[ectoparasite]]s from those hard-to-reach areas. Allogrooming is most common among species that are regularly in close physical contact due to [[flock (birds)|flocking]] or social behaviours,<ref name = "Wilson"/> and such contact allows for easier transfer of ectoparasites between individuals.<ref name = "Radford"/> In one study, [[Macaroni penguin]]s that frequently allopreened had significantly fewer [[tick]]s on their heads and necks than those that did not.<ref name = "Deeming"/>


==References==
==References==
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<ref name = "Ng">{{cite journal | journal = The Condor | first1 = David | last1 = Ng | first2 = Bruce D. | last2 = Jasperson | title = Interspecific Allopreening between Crested Caracara and Black Vulture | volume = 86 | issue = 2 | date = May 1984 | pages = 214–215 | jstor = 1367047 | url = https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/condor/v086n02/p0214-p0215.pdf | format = PDF}}</ref>
<ref name = "Ng">{{cite journal | journal = The Condor | first1 = David | last1 = Ng | first2 = Bruce D. | last2 = Jasperson | title = Interspecific Allopreening between Crested Caracara and Black Vulture | volume = 86 | issue = 2 | date = May 1984 | pages = 214–215 | jstor = 1367047 | url = https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/condor/v086n02/p0214-p0215.pdf | format = PDF}}</ref>
<ref name = "Olsen">{{cite book | title = Stray Feathers: Reflections on the Structure, Behaviour and Evolution of Birds | first1 = Penny | last1 = Olsen | first2 = Leo | last2 = Joseph | year = 2011 | publisher = CSIRO | location = Collingwood, VIC, Australia | page = 249 | isbn = 978-0-643-09493-2 | url = https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Jsm5AoA4qfcC&pg=PA249}}</ref>
<ref name = "Olsen">{{cite book | title = Stray Feathers: Reflections on the Structure, Behaviour and Evolution of Birds | first1 = Penny | last1 = Olsen | first2 = Leo | last2 = Joseph | year = 2011 | publisher = CSIRO | location = Collingwood, VIC, Australia | page = 249 | isbn = 978-0-643-09493-2 | url = https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Jsm5AoA4qfcC&pg=PA249}}</ref>
<ref name = "Radford">{{cite journal | title = Dual Function of Allopreening in the Cooperatively Breeding Green Woodhoopoe, ''Phoeniculus purpureus'' | first1 = Andrew N. | last1 = Radford | first2 = Morné A. | last2 = Du Plessis | journal = Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology | volume = 61 | issue = 2 | date = December 2006 | pages = 221-230 | jstor = 25511576 | doi = 10.1007/s00265-006-0253-6 | url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225734193_Dual_function_of_allopreening_in_the_cooperatively_breeding_green_woodhoopoe_Phoeniculus_purpureus}}</ref>
<ref name=Sibley>{{cite book |title=The Sibley guide to Bird Life & Behaviour |date=2001 |publisher=Christopher Helm |page=58-59 |location=London |isbn=0713662506 |first1=Chris |last1=Elphick |last2=Dunning, Jr. |first2=John B. |chapter=Behaviour |editors=Elphick, Chris; Dunning, Jr., John B. & Sibley, David}}</ref>
<ref name=Sibley>{{cite book |title=The Sibley guide to Bird Life & Behaviour |date=2001 |publisher=Christopher Helm |page=58-59 |location=London |isbn=0713662506 |first1=Chris |last1=Elphick |last2=Dunning, Jr. |first2=John B. |chapter=Behaviour |editors=Elphick, Chris; Dunning, Jr., John B. & Sibley, David}}</ref>
<ref name = "Wilson">{{cite book | title = Sociobiology: The New Synthesis | first = Edward O. | last = Wilson | year = 2000 | orig-year = 1975 | publisher = Harvard University Press | location = Cambridge, MA, US | page = 208–209 | isbn = 978-0-674-00089-6 | url = https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v7lV9tz8fXAC&pg=PA208}}</ref>
}}
}}


Revision as of 11:16, 4 July 2017

When preening, a bird draws individual feathers through its beak, realigning and re-interlocking the barbules.

Preening is a maintenance behaviour found in birds that involves the use of the bill to position their feathers, interlock barbs that have become separated, clean and reduce ectoparasite loads. Because feathers are critical to a bird's survival — contributing as they do to insulation, waterproofing and aerodynamic flight — birds spend a great deal of time maintaining them.[1] For example, one study found that gulls spend 15% of their daylight hours preening during the breeding season.[2] Although preening is primarily an individual behaviour, some species indulge in allopreening, with one individual preening another, especially in hard to reach locations. Preening can be associated with and follow or precede other maintenance behaviours including dusting, bathing, sunning, oiling or anting.

Many birds have a preen- or uropygial gland opening above the base of the tail feathers and producing a lipid rich secretion that is first applied to the bill and then to the feathers. The preen-gland is absent in the ratites (emu, ostrich, cassowary) as well as some neognath birds including bustards, a few parrots and pigeons. The gland is large in aquatic birds.[3][4] The uropygial secretion plays a role in reducing the growth of fungi and bacteria. In some cases such as hoopoes there are symbiotic Enterococcus faecalis that prevent the growth of harmful bacteria such as Bacillus licheniformis.[5] During moult, the pinfeathers have sheaths that need to be removed during preening as the feather emerges.[6] Some birds like the herons have special feathers called powder down which breakdown into a fine dust which the birds apply to their contour feathers while preening.[7]

Preening may involve two kinds of bill actions - nibbling (or mandibulating) while working the feather from base to tip and secondly stroking, either with the bill closed or open. In grebes this is done more vigorously with an open bill and is termed as stropping. In penguins, the head is also used in a motion referred to as wiping. Some birds will also use their feet in an action termed as scratch-preening which is usually applied to the head. Some species (including nightjars, herons, frigatebirds, owls and pratincoles[8]) have comb like serrations on the claw (a pectinate claw) of the middle toe which may aid in scratch preening. While some species use the leg over the lowered head while the wing is held low, others extend the leg between the wing and the body.[9]

Preening may serve a secondary function in courtship displays. In some cases a greatly disturbed bird may preen while returning to its normal state in what is termed as a displacement activity.[10] The action of allopreening and its solicitation play roles in establishing hierarchies and in forming bonds within social groups of birds.[11]

Allopreening

Allopreening may help to strengthen pair bonds.

Allopreening is the preening of one bird by another.[9] It is not particularly common among birds,[12] though species from at least 43 families are known to engage in the mutual activity. A number of hypotheses have been advanced to explain the behavior: that it assists in effective grooming, that it assists in recognition of individuals, that it assists in recognition of mates or potential sexual partners, and that it assists in social communication, reducing or redirecting potential aggressive tendencies. Evidence suggests that different species may participate for different reasons, and that those reasons may change depending on the season and the individuals involved.[13] In most cases, allopreening involves members of the same species, although some cases of interspecific allopreening are known; the vast majority of these involve icterids, though at least one instance of mutual grooming between a black vulture and a crested caracara has been documented.[14]

There is some evidence that allogrooming may help to keep in good condition those feathers that a bird cannot easily reach by itself; allogrooming activities tend to focus on the head and neck, for example.[15][16] It may also help to remove ectoparasites from those hard-to-reach areas. Allogrooming is most common among species that are regularly in close physical contact due to flocking or social behaviours,[12] and such contact allows for easier transfer of ectoparasites between individuals.[17] In one study, Macaroni penguins that frequently allopreened had significantly fewer ticks on their heads and necks than those that did not.[18]

References

  1. ^ Elphick, Chris; Dunning, Jr., John B. (2001). "Behaviour". The Sibley guide to Bird Life & Behaviour. London: Christopher Helm. p. 58-59. ISBN 0713662506. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |editors= ignored (|editor= suggested) (help)
  2. ^ Delius, J. D. (May 1988). "Preening and Associated Comfort Behavior in Birds" (PDF). Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 525 (1 Neural Mechan): 40–55. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1988.tb38594.x.
  3. ^ Haribal, Meena; Dhondt, André A.; Rosane, David; Rodriguez, Eloy (2005). "Chemistry of preen gland secretions of passerines: different pathways to same goal? why?". Chemoecology. 15: 251–260. doi:10.1007/s00049-005-0318-4.
  4. ^ Jacob, Jurgen; Ziswiler, Vincent (1982). "The Uropygial Gland". In Farner, D.S.; King, J.R.; Parkes, K.C. (eds.). Avian Biology. Volume 6. New York: Academic Press. pp. 199–324.
  5. ^ Ruiz-Rodríguez, M.; Valdivia, E.; Soler, Juan J.; Martín-Vivaldi, M.; Martín-Platero, A. M.; Martínez-Bueno, M. (2009-11-15). "Symbiotic bacteria living in the hoopoe9s uropygial gland prevent feather degradation". Journal of Experimental Biology. 212 (22): 3621–3626. doi:10.1242/jeb.031336. ISSN 0022-0949. PMID 19880722.
  6. ^ Sibley, David Allen (2001). The Sibley Guide to Bird Life and Behavior. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. p. 57.
  7. ^ Wetmore, Alexander (1920). "The Function of Powder Downs in Herons" (PDF). The Condor. 22 (5): 168–170.
  8. ^ Stettenheim, Peter R. (2000-08-01). "The Integumentary Morphology of Modern Birds—An Overview". American Zoologist. 40 (4): 461–477. doi:10.1668/0003-1569(2000)040[0461:timomb]2.0.co;2. ISSN 0003-1569.
  9. ^ a b Campbell, Bruce; Lack, Elizabeth, eds. (1985). A Dictionary of Birds. Carlton, UK: T and A D Poyser. p. 102–103. ISBN 0-85661-039-9.
  10. ^ Iersel, J. J. A. Van; Bol, A. C. Angela (1958-01-01). "Preening of Two Tern Species. a Study On Displacement Activities". Behaviour. 13 (1): 1–87. doi:10.1163/156853958x00037. ISSN 1568-539X.
  11. ^ Harrison, C. J. O. (1965-01-01). "Allopreening as Agonistic Behaviour". Behaviour. 24 (3): 161–208. doi:10.1163/156853965x00011. ISSN 1568-539X.
  12. ^ a b Wilson, Edward O. (2000) [1975]. Sociobiology: The New Synthesis. Cambridge, MA, US: Harvard University Press. p. 208–209. ISBN 978-0-674-00089-6.
  13. ^ Forsman, Eric D.; Wight, Howard M. (July 1979). "Allopreening in Owls: What Are Its Functions?" (PDF). The Auk. 96 (3): 525–531. JSTOR 4085549.
  14. ^ Ng, David; Jasperson, Bruce D. (May 1984). "Interspecific Allopreening between Crested Caracara and Black Vulture" (PDF). The Condor. 86 (2): 214–215. JSTOR 1367047.
  15. ^ Loon, Rael; Loon, Hélène (2005). Birds: The Inside Story. Cape Town, South Africa: Struik. p. 36. ISBN 978-1-77007-151-3.
  16. ^ Olsen, Penny; Joseph, Leo (2011). Stray Feathers: Reflections on the Structure, Behaviour and Evolution of Birds. Collingwood, VIC, Australia: CSIRO. p. 249. ISBN 978-0-643-09493-2.
  17. ^ Radford, Andrew N.; Du Plessis, Morné A. (December 2006). "Dual Function of Allopreening in the Cooperatively Breeding Green Woodhoopoe, Phoeniculus purpureus". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 61 (2): 221–230. doi:10.1007/s00265-006-0253-6. JSTOR 25511576.
  18. ^ Deeming, D. Charles; Reynolds, S. James, eds. (2015). Nests, Eggs, and Incubation: New ideas about avian reproduction. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p. 94. ISBN 978-0-19-871866-6.
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