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=== Violence in relationships ===
=== Violence in relationships ===
Violence in relationships, commonly referred to as intimate partner violence (IPV), is impacted by various factors including the presence of mental illness or use of substances. <ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Oram|first=S.|last2=Trevillion|first2=K.|last3=Khalifeh|first3=H.|last4=Feder|first4=G.|last5=Howard|first5=L. M.|date=2014/12|title=Systematic review and meta-analysis of psychiatric disorder and the perpetration of partner violence|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/epidemiology-and-psychiatric-sciences/article/systematic-review-and-metaanalysis-of-psychiatric-disorder-and-the-perpetration-of-partner-violence/09993DA57711032BD47895869F5BF0C4|journal=Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences|volume=23|issue=4|pages=361–376|doi=10.1017/s2045796013000450|issn=2045-7960}}</ref><ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Crane|first=Cory A.|last2=Hawes|first2=Samuel W.|last3=Weinberger|first3=Andrea H.|date=2013-07-22|title=Intimate Partner Violence Victimization and Cigarette Smoking|url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1524838013495962|journal=Trauma, Violence, & Abuse|language=en|volume=14|issue=4|pages=305–315|doi=10.1177/1524838013495962}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Crane|first=Cory A.|last2=Godleski|first2=Stephanie A.|last3=Przybyla|first3=Sarahmona M.|last4=Schlauch|first4=Robert C.|last5=Testa|first5=Maria|date=2015-05-24|title=The Proximal Effects of Acute Alcohol Consumption on Male-to-Female Aggression|url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1524838015584374|journal=Trauma, Violence, & Abuse|language=en|volume=17|issue=5|pages=520–531|doi=10.1177/1524838015584374}}</ref> Specifically, individuals with depression, generalized anxiety (GAD), or panic disorder are potentially at risk for physical violence towards a partner; findings are consistent for both men and women regarding the connection between psychiatric diagnoses and perpetuation of relationship violence. <ref name=":8" /> Additionally, propensity to engage in specific behaviors such as gambling or endorsement of violent pornography have also been associated with increased risk for relationship violence occurrence. <ref name=":9" /><ref name=":7" /> Individual factors have also been suggested to be associated with relationship violence including anger, aggressiveness, and adverse emotional internalization. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Birkley|first=Erica L.|last2=Eckhardt|first2=Christopher I.|title=Anger, hostility, internalizing negative emotions, and intimate partner violence perpetration: A meta-analytic review|url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S027273581500015X|journal=Clinical Psychology Review|volume=37|pages=40–56|doi=10.1016/j.cpr.2015.01.002}}</ref>
Violence in relationships, commonly referred to as intimate partner violence (IPV), is impacted by various factors including the presence of mental illness or use of substances. <ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Oram|first=S.|last2=Trevillion|first2=K.|last3=Khalifeh|first3=H.|last4=Feder|first4=G.|last5=Howard|first5=L. M.|date=2014/12|title=Systematic review and meta-analysis of psychiatric disorder and the perpetration of partner violence|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/epidemiology-and-psychiatric-sciences/article/systematic-review-and-metaanalysis-of-psychiatric-disorder-and-the-perpetration-of-partner-violence/09993DA57711032BD47895869F5BF0C4|journal=Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences|volume=23|issue=4|pages=361–376|doi=10.1017/s2045796013000450|issn=2045-7960}}</ref><ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Crane|first=Cory A.|last2=Hawes|first2=Samuel W.|last3=Weinberger|first3=Andrea H.|date=2013-07-22|title=Intimate Partner Violence Victimization and Cigarette Smoking|url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1524838013495962|journal=Trauma, Violence, & Abuse|language=en|volume=14|issue=4|pages=305–315|doi=10.1177/1524838013495962}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Crane|first=Cory A.|last2=Godleski|first2=Stephanie A.|last3=Przybyla|first3=Sarahmona M.|last4=Schlauch|first4=Robert C.|last5=Testa|first5=Maria|date=2015-05-24|title=The Proximal Effects of Acute Alcohol Consumption on Male-to-Female Aggression|url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1524838015584374|journal=Trauma, Violence, & Abuse|language=en|volume=17|issue=5|pages=520–531|doi=10.1177/1524838015584374}}</ref> Specifically, individuals with depression, generalized anxiety (GAD), or panic disorder are potentially at risk for physical violence towards a partner; findings are consistent for both men and women regarding the connection between psychiatric diagnoses and perpetuation of relationship violence. <ref name=":8" /> Additionally, propensity to engage in specific behaviors such as gambling or endorsement of violent pornography have also been associated with increased risk for relationship violence occurrence. <ref name=":9" /><ref name=":7" /> Individual factors have also been suggested to be associated with relationship violence including anger, aggressiveness, and adverse emotional internalization. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Birkley|first=Erica L.|last2=Eckhardt|first2=Christopher I.|title=Anger, hostility, internalizing negative emotions, and intimate partner violence perpetration: A meta-analytic review|url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S027273581500015X|journal=Clinical Psychology Review|volume=37|pages=40–56|doi=10.1016/j.cpr.2015.01.002}}</ref> Contrarily, exposure to relationship violence is also linked to the later development of mental health symptoms or diagnoses. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wolfe|first=David A.|last2=Crooks|first2=Claire V.|last3=Lee|first3=Vivien|last4=McIntyre-Smith|first4=Alexandra|last5=Jaffe|first5=Peter G.|date=2003-09-01|title=The Effects of Children's Exposure to Domestic Violence: A Meta-Analysis and Critique|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1024910416164|journal=Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review|language=en|volume=6|issue=3|pages=171–187|doi=10.1023/a:1024910416164|issn=1096-4037}}</ref>


=== Violence in pop culture and media ===
=== Violence in pop culture and media ===
The prevalence of legitimization of violence may be facilitated by it's presence in various media.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Hald|first=Gert Martin|last2=Malamuth|first2=Neil M.|last3=Yuen|first3=Carlin|date=2010-01-01|title=Pornography and attitudes supporting violence against women: revisiting the relationship in nonexperimental studies|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ab.20328/abstract|journal=Aggressive Behavior|language=en|volume=36|issue=1|pages=14–20|doi=10.1002/ab.20328|issn=1098-2337}}</ref> There is evidence to suggest that sex-related crimes account for nearly 10% of all dialogue on television related to sex, most of which is found on fictional programs.<ref name=":6" /> Additionally, research has also found a positive relationship between pornography consumption and attitudes supporting violence against women, especially when the pornography in question is violent in nature. <ref name=":7" />
The prevalence of legitimization of violence may be facilitated by it's presence in various media.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Hald|first=Gert Martin|last2=Malamuth|first2=Neil M.|last3=Yuen|first3=Carlin|date=2010-01-01|title=Pornography and attitudes supporting violence against women: revisiting the relationship in nonexperimental studies|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ab.20328/abstract|journal=Aggressive Behavior|language=en|volume=36|issue=1|pages=14–20|doi=10.1002/ab.20328|issn=1098-2337}}</ref> There is evidence to suggest that sex-related crimes account for nearly 10% of all dialogue on television related to sex, most of which is found on fictional programs.<ref name=":6" /> Additionally, research has also found a positive relationship between pornography consumption and attitudes supporting violence against women, especially when the pornography in question is violent in nature. <ref name=":7" />


=== Public justification of violence ===
=== Public justification of violence ===

Revision as of 23:13, 22 November 2017

The culture of violence theory addresses the pervasiveness of specific violent patterns within in a societal dimension.[1] The concept of violence being ingrained in Western society and culture has been around for at least the past century.[1] Developed from structural violence, as research progressed the notion that a culture can sanction violent acts developed into what we know as culture of violence theory today.[1] Two prominent examples of culture legitimizing violence can be seen in rape myths and victim blaming.[2] Rape myths lead to misconstrued notions of blame; it is common for the responsibility associated with the rape to be placed on the victim rather than the offender.[2]

Furthermore, the culture of violence theory potentially accounts for inter-generational theories of violence and domestic violence.[3] Childhood exposure to violence in the household may later lead to similar patterns in marital relations.[3] Similarly, early experience with domestic violence is likely to increase an individual's potential for development of clinical symptoms.[4] Additionally, presence of a preexisting mental disorder may heighten the chances of becoming involved in an abusive relationship.[5]

There are many factors which contribute to the persistence of violence among individuals and on a societal level; gender is one relevant factor to understanding the culture of violence theory.[6] In the United States, a majority of reported rapes involve female victims.[2] However, there is a growing body of evidence to support the notion that women can perpetuate relational cycles of violence.[6] While a culture of violence has an impact on people as a whole, for individuals who have experienced trauma in their lives the impact can be much larger.[4][6][7]

Development of the theory

Culture of violence theory explains how cultures and societies can sanction violent acts.[1] While related to structural violence, cultural violence theory is different by explaining why direct acts of violence or violence built into systems of society exists and how they are legitimized.[1] Research suggests that cultures can encourage and permit violence to exist as a response to various environmental obstacles, such as widespread resource impoverishment.[8] This can be seen within various aspects of culture, such as film, television, music, language, art, and propaganda.[1][8][9][10]

Relation to cultural values in the United States

Rape myths

Rape myths refer to the inaccurate views and stereotypes of forced sexual acts, and the victims and perpetuators of them.[9] These notions are prevalent among the general population and often suggest that the victims of non-consensual sexual acts have bad reputations, are promiscuous, dress provocatively, or are fabricating assault when they regret the consensual acts after the fact.[9] These views are often legitimized by the status quo of men dominating women across domains such as family, education, work, and many others.[9] Rape myth acceptance can lead to poor assault/rape prevention measures, decrease in reporting of assaults/rapes, increases of assaults/rapes, and re-victimization.[9]

Violence in relationships

Violence in relationships, commonly referred to as intimate partner violence (IPV), is impacted by various factors including the presence of mental illness or use of substances. [11][12][13] Specifically, individuals with depression, generalized anxiety (GAD), or panic disorder are potentially at risk for physical violence towards a partner; findings are consistent for both men and women regarding the connection between psychiatric diagnoses and perpetuation of relationship violence. [11] Additionally, propensity to engage in specific behaviors such as gambling or endorsement of violent pornography have also been associated with increased risk for relationship violence occurrence. [12][14] Individual factors have also been suggested to be associated with relationship violence including anger, aggressiveness, and adverse emotional internalization. [15] Contrarily, exposure to relationship violence is also linked to the later development of mental health symptoms or diagnoses. [16]

Violence in pop culture and media

The prevalence of legitimization of violence may be facilitated by it's presence in various media.[9][14] There is evidence to suggest that sex-related crimes account for nearly 10% of all dialogue on television related to sex, most of which is found on fictional programs.[9] Additionally, research has also found a positive relationship between pornography consumption and attitudes supporting violence against women, especially when the pornography in question is violent in nature. [14]

Public justification of violence

The pervasive notion of the "chosen one," within some extremist religious language and various nationalism propaganda functions as a means to perpetuate the undermining of the other and allowance of violence against the other.[1][9]

Trauma responses and cultural violence

Early childhood trauma, specifically exposure to abuse or violence, is linked to mental health disorder development. [4] Witnessing domestic violence during childhood places individuals at a greater risk for developing psychological disorders such as depression. [4] Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a widely supported potential resultant diagnosis of childhood trauma. [17] More specifically, interpersonal trauma places children and adolescents at an increased risk for developing PTSD, with girls being the most susceptible. [17] Furthermore, exposure to bullying has also been shown to induce symptoms of PTSD or be connected to a PTSD diagnosis. [18] Bullying and trauma responses have been observed in both child and adult populations as well as across various environments including academic or professional settings. [18]

For individuals who have experienced rape or sexual violence, interventions are implemented to address symptoms of trauma. [19] Various types of therapeutic interventions, including cognitive-processing therapy, prolonged exposure therapy, and eye movement desensitization, have been utilized for trauma responses. [19]

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f g Galtung, Johan (2016-07-01). "Cultural Violence". Journal of Peace Research. 27 (3): 291–305. doi:10.1177/0022343390027003005.
  2. ^ a b c Suarez, Eliana; Gadalla, Tahany M. (2010-01-11). "Stop Blaming the Victim: A Meta-Analysis on Rape Myths". Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 25 (11): 2010–2035. doi:10.1177/0886260509354503.
  3. ^ a b Stith, Sandra M.; Rosen, Karen H.; Middleton, Kimberly A.; Busch, Amy L.; Lundeberg, Kirsten; Carlton, Russell P. (2000-08-01). "The Intergenerational Transmission of Spouse Abuse: A Meta-Analysis". Journal of Marriage and Family. 62 (3): 640–654. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2000.00640.x. ISSN 1741-3737.
  4. ^ a b c d Mandelli, L.; Petrelli, C.; Serretti, A. "The role of specific early trauma in adult depression: A meta-analysis of published literature. Childhood trauma and adult depression". European Psychiatry. 30 (6): 665–680. doi:10.1016/j.eurpsy.2015.04.007.
  5. ^ Trevillion, Kylee; Oram, Siân; Feder, Gene; Howard, Louise M. (2012-12-26). "Experiences of Domestic Violence and Mental Disorders: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis". PLOS ONE. 7 (12): e51740. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0051740. ISSN 1932-6203.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  6. ^ a b c Swan, Suzanne C.; Snow, David L. (2016-06-30). "The Development of a Theory of Women's Use of Violence in Intimate Relationships". Violence Against Women. 12 (11): 1026–1045. doi:10.1177/1077801206293330.
  7. ^ Ungar, Michael (2013-05-03). "Resilience, Trauma, Context, and Culture". Trauma, Violence, & Abuse. 14 (3): 255–266. doi:10.1177/1524838013487805.
  8. ^ a b Brown, Ryan P.; Osterman, Lindsey L. (2012-07-20). Culture of Honor, Violence, and Homicide. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199738403.013.0013.
  9. ^ a b c d e f g h Ph.D, LeeAnn Kahlor; Ph.D, Matthew S. Eastin (2011-05-25). "Television's Role in the Culture of Violence Toward Women: A Study of Television Viewing and the Cultivation of Rape Myth Acceptance in the United States". Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media. 55 (2): 215–231. doi:10.1080/08838151.2011.566085. ISSN 0883-8151.
  10. ^ Ferguson, Christopher J.; Beresin, Eugene. "Social science's curious war with pop culture and how it was lost: The media violence debate and the risks it holds for social science". Preventive Medicine. 99: 69–76. doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2017.02.009.
  11. ^ a b Oram, S.; Trevillion, K.; Khalifeh, H.; Feder, G.; Howard, L. M. (2014/12). "Systematic review and meta-analysis of psychiatric disorder and the perpetration of partner violence". Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences. 23 (4): 361–376. doi:10.1017/s2045796013000450. ISSN 2045-7960. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  12. ^ a b Crane, Cory A.; Hawes, Samuel W.; Weinberger, Andrea H. (2013-07-22). "Intimate Partner Violence Victimization and Cigarette Smoking". Trauma, Violence, & Abuse. 14 (4): 305–315. doi:10.1177/1524838013495962.
  13. ^ Crane, Cory A.; Godleski, Stephanie A.; Przybyla, Sarahmona M.; Schlauch, Robert C.; Testa, Maria (2015-05-24). "The Proximal Effects of Acute Alcohol Consumption on Male-to-Female Aggression". Trauma, Violence, & Abuse. 17 (5): 520–531. doi:10.1177/1524838015584374.
  14. ^ a b c Hald, Gert Martin; Malamuth, Neil M.; Yuen, Carlin (2010-01-01). "Pornography and attitudes supporting violence against women: revisiting the relationship in nonexperimental studies". Aggressive Behavior. 36 (1): 14–20. doi:10.1002/ab.20328. ISSN 1098-2337.
  15. ^ Birkley, Erica L.; Eckhardt, Christopher I. "Anger, hostility, internalizing negative emotions, and intimate partner violence perpetration: A meta-analytic review". Clinical Psychology Review. 37: 40–56. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2015.01.002.
  16. ^ Wolfe, David A.; Crooks, Claire V.; Lee, Vivien; McIntyre-Smith, Alexandra; Jaffe, Peter G. (2003-09-01). "The Effects of Children's Exposure to Domestic Violence: A Meta-Analysis and Critique". Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review. 6 (3): 171–187. doi:10.1023/a:1024910416164. ISSN 1096-4037.
  17. ^ a b Alisic, Eva; Zalta, Alyson K.; Wesel, Floryt van; Larsen, Sadie E.; Hafstad, Gertrud S.; Hassanpour, Katayun; Smid, Geert E. (2014-05-01). "Rates of post-traumatic stress disorder in trauma-exposed children and adolescents: meta-analysis". The British Journal of Psychiatry. 204 (5): 335–340. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.113.131227. ISSN 0007-1250. PMID 24785767.
  18. ^ a b Nielsen, Morten Birkeland; Tangen, Tone; Idsoe, Thormod; Matthiesen, Stig Berge; Magerøy, Nils. "Post-traumatic stress disorder as a consequence of bullying at work and at school. A literature review and meta-analysis". Aggression and Violent Behavior. 21: 17–24. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2015.01.001.
  19. ^ a b Regehr, Cheryl; Alaggia, Ramona; Dennis, Jane; Pitts, Annabel; Saini, Michael (2013-02-05). "Interventions to Reduce Distress in Adult Victims of Rape and Sexual Violence". Research on Social Work Practice. 23 (3): 257–265. doi:10.1177/1049731512474103.
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