Vicarious traumatization: Difference between revisions
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==Addressing== |
==Addressing== |
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Vicarious traumatization is not the responsibility of clients or [[system]]s, although institutions that provide trauma-related services bear a responsibility to create policies and work settings that facilitate staff (and therefore client) well-being.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Shah|first=Siddharth Ashvin|date=September 2008|title=Addressing Stress in National Staff|url=https://www.greenleafintegrative.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/Addressing-Stress-in-National-Staff_Monday-Developments-Magazine_Sept-2008.pdf|journal=Monday Developments: The Latest Issues and Trends in International Development and Humanitarian Assistance|volume=26|issue=9|pages=21–22}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Shah|first=Siddharth Ashvin|date=December 2010|title=Three Principles of Effective Staff Care: Differentiation, Diversity and Diffusion|url=https://www.greenleafintegrative.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/3-Principles-of-Effective-Staff-Care_Monthly-Development-Magazine_Dec-2010.pdf|journal=Monday Developments: The Latest Issues and Trends in International Development and Humanitarian Assistance|volume=28|issue=12|pages=8–10, 30}}</ref> Each trauma worker is responsible for self-care |
Vicarious traumatization is not the responsibility of clients or [[system]]s, although institutions that provide trauma-related services bear a responsibility to create policies and work settings that facilitate staff (and therefore client) well-being.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Shah|first=Siddharth Ashvin|date=September 2008|title=Addressing Stress in National Staff|url=https://www.greenleafintegrative.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/Addressing-Stress-in-National-Staff_Monday-Developments-Magazine_Sept-2008.pdf|journal=Monday Developments: The Latest Issues and Trends in International Development and Humanitarian Assistance|volume=26|issue=9|pages=21–22}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Shah|first=Siddharth Ashvin|date=December 2010|title=Three Principles of Effective Staff Care: Differentiation, Diversity and Diffusion|url=https://www.greenleafintegrative.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/3-Principles-of-Effective-Staff-Care_Monthly-Development-Magazine_Dec-2010.pdf|journal=Monday Developments: The Latest Issues and Trends in International Development and Humanitarian Assistance|volume=28|issue=12|pages=8–10, 30}}</ref> Each trauma worker is responsible for self-care,<ref name=":6">{{cite book|title=Transforming the Pain: A Workbook on Vicarious Traumatization|last1=Saakvitne|first1=Karen W.|last2=Pearlman|first2=Laurie A.|date=1996|publisher=W.W. Norton|isbn=978-0-393-70233-0}}</ref> working reflectively,<ref name=":7">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D64qDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA202|title=Treating complex traumatic stress disorders: an evidence-based guide|last1=Pearlman|first1=Laurie A.|last2=Caringi|first2=J.|date=2009|publisher=Guilford Press|year=|isbn=978-1-60623-039-8|editor-last=Courtois|editor-first=Christine|location=New York|pages=202–224|chapter=Living and working self-reflectively to address vicarious trauma|editor-last2=Ford|editor-first2=}}</ref> and engaging in regular, frequent, trauma-informed professional confidential consultation.<ref name=":4" /> |
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There are many ways of addressing vicarious traumatization. All involve awareness, balance, and connection |
There are many ways of addressing vicarious traumatization. All involve awareness, balance, and connection.<ref name=":6" /> One set of approaches can be grouped together as [[coping strategies]]. These include, for example, [[self-care]], rest, escape, and play. A second set of approaches can be grouped as transforming strategies. Transforming strategies aim to help workers create [[community]] and find meaning through the work. Within each category, strategies may be applied in one's personal life<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" /> and professional life.<ref name=":7" /> Organizations that provide trauma services can also play a role in mitigating vicarious trauma.<ref>{{cite book|title=Secondary traumatic stress: self-care issues for clinicians, researchers, and educators|last1=Rosenbloom|first1=D.J.|last2=Pratt|first2=A.C.|last3=Pearlman|first3=Laurie A.|date=1995|publisher=Sidran Press|isbn=978-0-9629164-9-6|editor-last=Stamm|editor-first=B.|pages=66–79|chapter=Helpers' responses to trauma work: Understanding and intervening in an organization}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Secondary Traumatic Stress: Self-care Issues for Clinicians, Researchers, and Educators|date=1999|publisher=Sidran Press|isbn=978-1-886968-07-3|editor-last=Stamm|editor-first=B.}}</ref> |
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Research shows that many simple things increase happiness and this aids to lessen the impact of vicarious traumatization. People who are more socially connected |
Research shows that many simple things increase happiness and this aids to lessen the impact of vicarious traumatization. People who are more socially connected tend to be happier.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kawachi|first1=Ichiro|last2=Berkman|first2=Lisa F.|date=1 September 2001|title=Social ties and mental health|url=|journal=Journal of Urban Health|volume=78|issue=3|pages=458-467|doi=10.1093/jurban/78.3.458|issn=1099-3460|pmc=PMC3455910|via=}}</ref> People who consciously practice [[gratitude]] are also shown happier.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Seligman|first1=Martin E. P.|last2=Steen|first2=Tracy A.|last3=Park|first3=Nansook|last4=Peterson|first4=Christopher|date=2005|title=Positive Psychology Progress: Empirical Validation of Interventions.|url=http://www.michaelmurphypsychologies.com/seligman05ppprogressarticle.pdf|journal=American Psychologist|volume=60|issue=5|pages=410-421|doi=10.1037/0003-066X.60.5.410|issn=1935-990X|via=}}</ref> Creative endeavours that are completely detachment with work also increase happiness.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Csikszentmihalyi|first=Mihaly|date=1999|title=If we are so rich, why aren't we happy?|url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Mihaly_Csikszentmihalyi/publication/232506901_If_we_are_so_rich_why_aren%27t_we_happy/links/55ad6a1a08aee079921e258b/If-we-are-so-rich-why-arent-we-happy.pdf|journal=American Psychologist|volume=54|issue=10|pages=821–827|doi=10.1037/0003-066X.54.10.821|issn=1935-990X|via=}}</ref> Self-care practices like [[yoga]], [[qigong]], and [[Zazen|sitting meditation]] are found to be helpful for those who practice.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Christopher|first1=John Chambers|last2=Chrisman|first2=Jennifer A.|last3=Trotter-Mathison|first3=Michelle J.|last4=Schure|first4=Marc B.|last5=Dahlen|first5=Penny|last6=Christopher|first6=Suzanne B.|date=1 July 2011|title=Perceptions of the Long-Term Influence of Mindfulness Training on Counselors and Psychotherapists: A Qualitative Inquiry|url=https://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/39011147/Journal_of_Humanistic_Psychology-2011-Christopher-318-49.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAIWOWYYGZ2Y53UL3A&Expires=1517241415&Signature=zzDuNau8KLzgBRFDsWz2tqqTbJY%3D&response-content-disposition=inline%3B%20filename%3DPerceptions_of_the_long-term_influence_o.pdf|journal=Journal of Humanistic Psychology|volume=51|issue=3|pages=318-349|doi=10.1177/0022167810381471|issn=0022-1678}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Christopher|first1=John Chambers|last2=Christopher|first2=Suzanne E.|last3=Dunnagan|first3=Tim|last4=Schure|first4=Marc|date=1 October 2006|title=Teaching Self-Care Through Mindfulness Practices: The Application of Yoga, Meditation, and Qigong to Counselor Training|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0022167806290215|journal=Journal of Humanistic Psychology|volume=46|issue=4|pages=494-509|doi=10.1177/0022167806290215|issn=0022-1678}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Newsome|first1=Sandy|last2=Christopher|first2=John|last3=Dahlen|first3=Penny|last4=Christopher|first4=Suzanne|date=1 September 2006|title=Teaching Counselors Self-Care Through Mindfulness Practices|journal=Teachers College Record|volume=108|pages=1881-1900|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9620.2006.00766.x}}</ref> [[Harvard Business Review|HBR]] in a case study regarding to traumatization stated that it is essential to create an organizational culture in which it’s cool to be a social worker or a counselor, where these professionals are empowered to influence the workplace issues, the strategy of human services in both corporate and care services.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Quelch|first1=John A.|last2=Knoop|first2=Carin-Isabel|date=6 November 2014|title=Mental Health and the American Workplace|url=https://canvas.harvard.edu/courses/11155/files/1819496/download?wrap=1}}</ref> |
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==Vicarious transformation== |
==Vicarious transformation== |
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Beyond vicarious traumatization lies vicarious [[Spiritual transformation|transformation]] (VTF). This is the process of transforming one's vicarious trauma, leading to spiritual growth. Vicarious transformation is a process of active engagement with the negative changes that come about through trauma work. It can be recognized by a deepened sense of |
Beyond vicarious traumatization lies vicarious [[Spiritual transformation|transformation]] (VTF). This is the process of transforming one's vicarious trauma, leading to spiritual growth. Vicarious transformation is a process of active engagement with the negative changes that come about through trauma work. It can be recognized by a deepened sense of connection with all living beings, a broader sense of moral inclusion, a greater appreciation of the gifts in one's life, and a greater sense of meaning and hope. Like VT, VTF is a process, not an endpoint or outcome. If the clients’ extraordinary [[suffering|pain]] can be embraced instead of fended off, humanity is expanded. In this receptive mode, caring can be deepened. The clients feel that they are allowed to exert their influence, and this reciprocal process conveys [[respect]]. People can learn from trauma survivor clients that people can endure horrible things and show great resilience and strength. This knowledge that clients improve over time is gratifying and fulfilling the subsequent emotional healing brings ripple effects through the client’s family, friends, and off spring etc. this lived experience of survival would turn out as a gift that can be passed along to others. |
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==See also== |
==See also== |
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{{reflist|2}} |
{{reflist|2}} |
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* |
* |
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* Madrid, P.A., & Schacher, S.A. (2006). A critical concern: Pediatrician self-care after disasters. Pediatrics 117(5), S454-S457. |
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* Pearlman, L.A., & Caringi, J. (2009). Living and working self-reflectively to address vicarious trauma. In C.A. Courtois & J.D. Ford (Eds.), ''Treating complex traumatic stress disorders: An evidence-based guide'' (pp. 202–224). New York: Guilford Press. |
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* Rosenbloom, D.J., Pratt, A.C., & Pearlman, L.A. (1995). Helpers' responses to trauma work: Understanding and intervening in an organization. In B.H. Stamm (Ed.), Secondary traumatic stress: Self-care issues for clinicians, researchers, and educators, pp. 65–79. Lutherville, MD: Sidran Press. |
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* Saakvitne, K. W., Pearlman, L. A., & the Staff of the Traumatic Stress Institute (1996). Transforming the pain: A workbook on vicarious traumatization. New York: W.W. Norton. |
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* Stamm, B.H. (Ed.) (1999). Secondary traumatic stress: Self-care issues for clinicians, researchers, and educators (2nd ed.). Lutherville, MD: Sidran Press. |
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* Veronese, G. & Pepe, A. (2013) [http://rsw.sagepub.com/content/23/6/710.full.pdf+html Psychometric proprieties of the Impact of Event Scale (short version) in contexts of military violence]. Research on Social Work Practice, 23(6), 710-718. |
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==Further reading== |
==Further reading== |
Revision as of 15:16, 29 January 2018
![]() | This article has an unclear citation style. (January 2011) |
Vicarious traumatization (VT) is a transformation in the self of a trauma worker or helper that results from empathic engagement with traumatized clients and their reports of traumatic experiences. It is a special form of countertransference stimulated by exposure to the client’s traumatic material.[1] Its hallmark is disrupted spirituality, or a disruption in the trauma workers' perceived meaning and hope. The term was coined specifically with reference to the experience of psychotherapists working with trauma survivor clients.[2] Others, including Saakvitne, Gamble, Pearlman, and Lev (2000) have expanded its application to a wide range of persons who assist trauma survivors, including clergy,[3] front-line social workers,[4] justice system professionals,[5][6] health care providers,[7][8] humanitarian workers,[9][10] journalists, and first responders.[8]
Signs and symptoms
The symptoms of vicarious trauma align with the symptoms of primary, actual trauma. When helping professionals attempt to connect with their clients/victims emotionally, the symptoms of vicarious trauma can create emotional disturbance such as feelings of sadness, grief, irritability and mood swings.[11] The signs and symptoms of vicarious trauma parallel those of direct trauma, although they tend to be less intense. Workers who have personal trauma histories may be more vulnerable to VT, although the research findings on this point are mixed.[12] Common signs and symptoms include, but are not limited to, social withdrawal; mood swings; aggression; greater sensitivity to violence; somatic symptoms; sleep difficulties; intrusive imagery; cynicism; sexual difficulties; difficulty managing boundaries with clients; and core beliefs and resulting difficulty in relationships reflecting problems with security, trust, esteem, intimacy, and control.[13][14][15][16][17][18][19]
Contributing factors
Vicarious trauma, conceptually based in constructivist self-development theory,[20][21][22] arises from an interaction between individuals and their situations. This means that the individual helper's personal history (including prior traumatic experiences), coping strategies, and support network, among other things, all interact with his or her situation (including work setting, the nature of the work s/he does, the specific clientele served, etc.), to give rise to individual expressions of vicarious trauma. This in turn implies the individual nature of responses or adaptations to VT as well as individual ways of coping with and transforming it.
Anything that interferes with the helper's ability to fulfill his/her responsibility to assist traumatized clients can contribute to vicarious trauma. Many human service workers report that administrative and bureaucratic factors that impediment to their effectiveness influence work satisfaction.[4] Negative aspects of the organization as a whole, such as reorganization, downsizing in the name of change management and a lack of resources in the name of lean management, contribute to burned-out workers.[23][24][25]
Related concepts
While the term "vicarious trauma" has been used interchangeably with "compassion fatigue", "secondary traumatic stress disorder," "burnout," "countertransference," and "work-related stress," there are important differences. These include the following:
- Unlike compassion fatigue, VT is a theory-based construct. This means that observable symptoms can serve as the starting for a process of discovering contributing factors and related signs, symptoms, and adaptations. VT also specifies psychological domains that can be affected, rather than specific symptoms that may arise. This specificity may more accurately guide preventive measures and interventions, and allow for the accurate development of interventions for multiple domains (such as changes in the balance between psychotherapy and other work-related tasks and changes in self-care practices).
- Countertransference is the psychotherapist's response to a particular client. VT refers to responses across clients, across time.
- Unlike burnout, countertransference, and work-related stress, VT is specific to trauma workers. This means that the helper will experience trauma-specific difficulties, such as intrusive imagery, that are not part of burnout or countertransference.[21] The burnout and vicarious traumatization constructs overlap, specifically regarding emotional exhaustion.[26] A worker may experience both VT and burnout, and each has its own remedies. VT and countertransference may also co-occur, intensifying each other.[21]
- Unlike vicarious trauma, countertransference can be a very useful tool for psychotherapists, providing them with important information about their clients.
- Work-related stress is a generic term without a theoretical basis, specific signs and symptoms or contributing factors, or remedies. Burnout and vicarious trauma can co-exist. Countertransference responses may potentiate vicarious trauma.[21]
- Vicarious post-traumatic growth, unlike VTF, is not a theory-based construct but rather is based on self-reported signs.[27]
- Body-centred countertransference
Mechanism
The posited mechanism for vicarious traumatization is empathy.[21][28][29] Different forms of empathy may result in different effects on helpers. Batson and colleagues have conducted research that might inform trauma helpers about ways to manage empathic connection constructively.[30][31] If helpers identify with their trauma survivor clients and immerse themselves in thinking about what it would be like if these events happened to them, they are likely to experience personal distress, feeling upset, worried, distressed. On the other hand, if helpers instead imagine what the client experienced, they may be more likely to feel compassion and moved to help.
Measurement
Over the years, people have measured VT in a wide variety of ways. Vicarious trauma is a multifaceted construct requiring a multifaceted assessment. More specifically, the aspects of VT that would need to be measured for a complete assessment include self capacities, ego resources, frame of reference (identity, world view, and spirituality), psychological needs, and trauma symptoms.[20][32][22] Measuring of some of these elements of VT exist, including the following:
- Psychological needs, using the Trauma and Attachment Belief Scale[18]
- Self capacities, using the Inner Experience Questionnaire[21] and/or the Inventory of Altered Self-Capacities[33]
- Trauma symptoms, using the PTSD Checklist,[34] Impact of Events Scale,[35] Impact of Events Scale-Revised,[36] children's revised Impact of Events Scale (Arabic Version),[37] Trauma Symptom Inventory,[38] Detailed Assessment of Posttraumatic Stress,[39] and/or the World Assumptions Scale[40]
Addressing
Vicarious traumatization is not the responsibility of clients or systems, although institutions that provide trauma-related services bear a responsibility to create policies and work settings that facilitate staff (and therefore client) well-being.[41][42] Each trauma worker is responsible for self-care,[43] working reflectively,[44] and engaging in regular, frequent, trauma-informed professional confidential consultation.[21]
There are many ways of addressing vicarious traumatization. All involve awareness, balance, and connection.[43] One set of approaches can be grouped together as coping strategies. These include, for example, self-care, rest, escape, and play. A second set of approaches can be grouped as transforming strategies. Transforming strategies aim to help workers create community and find meaning through the work. Within each category, strategies may be applied in one's personal life[22][43] and professional life.[44] Organizations that provide trauma services can also play a role in mitigating vicarious trauma.[45][46]
Research shows that many simple things increase happiness and this aids to lessen the impact of vicarious traumatization. People who are more socially connected tend to be happier.[47] People who consciously practice gratitude are also shown happier.[48] Creative endeavours that are completely detachment with work also increase happiness.[49] Self-care practices like yoga, qigong, and sitting meditation are found to be helpful for those who practice.[50][51][52] HBR in a case study regarding to traumatization stated that it is essential to create an organizational culture in which it’s cool to be a social worker or a counselor, where these professionals are empowered to influence the workplace issues, the strategy of human services in both corporate and care services.[53]
Vicarious transformation
Beyond vicarious traumatization lies vicarious transformation (VTF). This is the process of transforming one's vicarious trauma, leading to spiritual growth. Vicarious transformation is a process of active engagement with the negative changes that come about through trauma work. It can be recognized by a deepened sense of connection with all living beings, a broader sense of moral inclusion, a greater appreciation of the gifts in one's life, and a greater sense of meaning and hope. Like VT, VTF is a process, not an endpoint or outcome. If the clients’ extraordinary pain can be embraced instead of fended off, humanity is expanded. In this receptive mode, caring can be deepened. The clients feel that they are allowed to exert their influence, and this reciprocal process conveys respect. People can learn from trauma survivor clients that people can endure horrible things and show great resilience and strength. This knowledge that clients improve over time is gratifying and fulfilling the subsequent emotional healing brings ripple effects through the client’s family, friends, and off spring etc. this lived experience of survival would turn out as a gift that can be passed along to others.
See also
References
- ^ Courtois, Christine A. (1993). "Vicarious traumatization of the therapist". NCP Clinical Newsletter. 3 (2).
- ^ McCann, I. Lisa; Pearlman, Laurie Anne (1 January 1990). "Vicarious traumatization: A framework for understanding the psychological effects of working with victims". Journal of Traumatic Stress. 3 (1): 131–149. doi:10.1007/BF00975140. ISSN 0894-9867.
- ^ Day, Jackson H. (15 February 2006). Vermilyea, Elizabeth; Wilkerson; Giller (eds.). Risking Connection in Faith Communities: A Training Curriculum for Faith Leaders Supporting Trauma Survivors. Baltimore, Md: Sidran Press. ISBN 978-1-886968-16-5.
- ^ a b Pryce, Josephine G; Shackelford, Kimberly K.; Pryce, David H. (2007). Secondary Traumatic Stress and the Child Welfare Professional. Chicago: Lyceum Books, Inc. ISBN 978-0-19-061591-8.
- ^ Levin, Andrew; Greisberg, Scott (1 September 2003). "Vicarious Trauma in Attorneys". Pace Law Review. 24 (1): 245. ISSN 0272-2410.
- ^ Peters, Jean Koh (1 November 2007). Representing Children in Child Protective Proceedings: Ethical and Practical Dimensions (3rd ed.). Lexis Nexis Matthew Bender. ISBN 978-0-8205-7581-0.
- ^ Madrid, Paula A.; Schacher, Stephanie J. (May 2006). "A Critical Concern: Pediatrician Self-care After Disasters". Pediatrics. 117 (Supplement 4): S454–S457. doi:10.1542/peds.2006-0099V. ISSN 0031-4005.
- ^ a b Shah, Siddharth Ashvin (2011). "Mental Health Emergencies and Post-traumatic Stress Disorder". In Kapur, G.; Smith (eds.). Emergency Public Health: Preparedness and Response. Sudbury, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning. p. 493–516. ISBN 978-0-7637-5870-7.
- ^ Shah, Siddharth Ashvin; Garland, Elizabeth; Katz, Craig (2007). "Secondary traumatic stress: Prevalence in humanitarian aid workers in India" (PDF). Traumatology. 13 (1): 59–70. doi:10.1177/1534765607299910. ISSN 1085-9373.
- ^ Pearlman, Laurie Anne; McKay, Lisa (2009). "Understanding and addressing vicarious trauma" (Document). Pasadena, CA: Headington Institute.
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ignored (help) - ^ Catanese, Shiloh A. (September 2010). "Traumatized by association: The risk of working sex crimes". Federal Probation. 74 (2). ISSN 1555-0303.
- ^ For a review of this literature, see Bride, Brian E. (1 January 2004). "The Impact of Providing Psychosocial Services to Traumatized Populations" (PDF). Stress, Trauma, and Crisis. 7 (1): 29–46. doi:10.1080/15434610490281101. ISSN 1543-4613.
- ^ Arvay, M.; Uhlemann, M.R. (1996). "Counsellor stress in the field of trauma: A preliminary study". Canadian Journal of Counselling. 30 (3): 193–210.
- ^ Bober, Ted; Regehr, Cheryl; Zhou, Yanqiu Rachel (January 2006). "Development of the Coping Strategies Inventory for Trauma Counselors" (PDF). Journal of Loss and Trauma. 11 (1): 71–83. doi:10.1080/15325020500358225. ISSN 1532-5024.
- ^ Brady, Joan Laidig; Guy, James D.; Poelstra, Paul L.; Brokaw, Beth Fletcher (1999). "Vicarious traumatization, spirituality, and the treatment of sexual abuse survivors: A national survey of women psychotherapists". Professional Psychology: Research and Practice. 30 (4): 386–393. doi:10.1037/0735-7028.30.4.386. ISSN 1939-1323.
- ^ Cunningham, Maddy (1 August 1999). "The Impact of Sexual Abuse Treatment on the Social Work Clinician". Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal. 16 (4): 277–290. doi:10.1023/A:1022334911833. ISSN 0738-0151.
- ^ Ghahramanlou, M.; Brodbeck, C. (2000). "Predictors of secondary trauma in sexual assault trauma counselors". International Journal of Emergency Mental Health. 2 (4): 229–240. ISSN 1522-4821. PMID 11217154.
- ^ a b Pearlman, Laurie A (2003). Trauma and Attachment Belief Scale Manual. Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services. OCLC 828744792.
- ^ Schauben, Laura J.; Frazier, Patricia A. (1995). "Vicarious Trauma: The Effects on Female Counselors of Working with Sexual Violence Survivors". Psychology of Women Quarterly. 19 (1): 49–64. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1995.tb00278.x. ISSN 0361-6843.
- ^ a b McCann, I. Lisa (1990). Psychological trauma and the adult survivor: theory, therapy, and transformation. New York: Brunner/Mazel. ISBN 978-0-87630-594-2.
- ^ a b c d e f g Pearlman, Laurie A.; Saakvitne, Karen W. (1995). Trauma and the Therapist: Countertransference and Vicarious Traumatization in Psychotherapy with Incest Survivors. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-70183-8.
- ^ a b c Saakvitne, Karen W. (2000). Risking Connection: A Training Curriculum for Working with Survivors of Childhood Abuse. Sidran Press. ISBN 978-1-886968-08-0.
- ^ Maslach, Christina; Schaufeli, Wilmar B.; Leiter, Michael P. (February 2001). "Job Burnout". Annual Review of Psychology. 52 (1): 397–422. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.397. ISSN 0066-4308.
- ^ Maslach, Christina (1 October 2003). "Job Burnout: New Directions in Research and Intervention". Current Directions in Psychological Science. 12 (5): 189–192. doi:10.1111/1467-8721.01258. ISSN 0963-7214.
- ^ Rupert, Patricia; Morgan, David (1 October 2005). "Work Setting and Burnout Among Professional Psychologists". Professional Psychology: Research and Practice. 36. doi:10.1037/0735-7028.36.5.544.
- ^ Gamble, SJ; Pearlman, LA; Lucca, AM; Allen, GJ (1994). Vicarious traumatization and burnout among Connecticut psychologists: Empirical findings. Annual meeting of the Connecticut Psychological Association. Waterbury, CT.
- ^ Arnold, Debora; Calhoun, Lawrence G.; Tedeschi, Richard; Cann, Arnie (1 April 2005). "Vicarious Posttraumatic Growth in Psychotherapy". Journal of Humanistic Psychology. 45 (2): 239–263. doi:10.1177/0022167805274729. ISSN 0022-1678.
- ^ Rothschild, Babette; Rand, Marjorie L. (2006). Help for the Helper: The Psychophysiology of Compassion Fatigue and Vicarious Trauma. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-70422-8.
- ^ Wilson, John P.; Thomas, Rhiannon Brywnn (23 November 2004). Empathy in the Treatment of Trauma and PTSD. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-93746-1.
- ^ Batson, C. Daniel; Fultz, Jim; Schoenrade, Patricia A. (1 March 1987). "Distress and Empathy: Two Qualitatively Distinct Vicarious Emotions with Different Motivational Consequences". Journal of Personality. 55 (1): 19–39. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1987.tb00426.x. ISSN 1467-6494.
- ^ Lamm, Claus; Batson, C. Daniel; Decety, Jean (1 January 2007). "The Neural Substrate of Human Empathy: Effects of Perspective-taking and Cognitive Appraisal" (PDF). Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. 19 (1): 42–58. doi:10.1162/jocn.2007.19.1.42. ISSN 0898-929X.
- ^ Pearlman, Laurie Anne (2001). "The treatment of persons with complex PTSD and other trauma-related disruptions of the self". In Wilson, J.P.; Friedman; Lindy (eds.). Treating psychological trauma & PTSD. New York: Guilford Press. pp. 205–236.
- ^ Briere, John; Runtz, Marsha (1 September 2002). "The Inventory of Altered Self-Capacities (IASC): A Standardized Measure of Identity, Affect Regulation, and Relationship Disturbance" (PDF). Assessment. 9 (3): 230–239. doi:10.1177/1073191102009003002. ISSN 1073-1911.
- ^ Weathers, Frank W; Litz, Brett T; Herman, Debra S; Huska, Jennifer A; Keane, Terence M (1993). The PTSD Checklist (PCL): Reliability, validity, and diagnostic utility. Annual convention of the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies. Vol. 462. San Antonio, Texas.
- ^ Horowitz, M.; Wilner, N.; Alvarez, W. (May 1979). "Impact of Event Scale: a measure of subjective stress" (PDF). Psychosomatic Medicine. 41 (3): 209–218. ISSN 0033-3174. PMID 472086.
- ^ "Impact of Event Scale – Revised (IES-R)". PTSD: National Center for PTSD. US Department of Veterans' Affairs.
{{cite web}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|dead-url=
(help) - ^ Veronese, Guido; Pepe, Alessandro (1 November 2013). "Psychometric Properties of IES-R, Short Arabic Version in Contexts of Military Violence". Research on Social Work Practice. 23 (6): 710–718. doi:10.1177/1049731513486360. ISSN 1049-7315.
- ^ Briere 1996.[[Category:Articles with incomplete citations from {{subst:CURRENTMONTHNAME}} {{subst:CURRENTYEAR}}]][full citation needed]
- ^ Briere, John (2001). Detailed Assessment of Posttraumatic Stress: DAPS: Professional Manual. Psychological Assessment Resources Lutz, FL.
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Further reading
- Hernandez, P., Gangsei, D., & Engstrom, D. (2007). Vicarious resilience: A new concept in work with those who survive trauma. Family Process, 46(2), 229-241.
- Kearney, M.K., Weininger, R.B., Vachon, M.L.S., Harrison, R.L., & Mount, B.M. (2009). Self-care of physicians caring for patients at the end of life. Journal of the American Medical Association, 301(11), 1155-1164.
- Meadors, P.,& Lamson, A. (2009). Compassion fatigue and secondary traumatization: Provider self care on intensive care units for children.
- Journal of Pediatric Health Care, (22)1, 24-34.
- Norcross, J.C., & Guy, J.D. (2007). Leaving it at the office: A guide to psychotherapist self-care. New York: Guilford Press.
- Shah, S.A. (2009). “To do no harm,” Spiritual Care and Ethnomedical Competence: Four cases of Psychosocial Trauma Recovery for the 2004 Tsunami and 2005 Earthquake in South Asia. In G.H. Brenner, D.H. Bush, & J. Moses (Eds.) Creating Spiritual and Psychological Resilience Integrating Care In Disaster Relief Work, 157-178. New York: Routledge.
- Wicks, R.J.J. (2007). The resilient clinician. New York: Oxford University Press.