GLARE: Difference between revisions
Noted the current number of GLARE grades and modified the density figure based on a new reference. |
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{{advert|date=April 2010}} |
{{advert|date=April 2010}} |
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'''Glass reinforced aluminium''' ('''GLARE''') is a [[fiber metal laminate]] (FML) composed of several very thin layers of metal (usually [[aluminium]]) interspersed with layers of [[glass-fiber]] ''[[pre-preg]]'', bonded together with a matrix such as [[epoxy]]. The uni-directional pre-preg layers may be aligned in different directions to suit predicted [[stress (physics)|stress]] conditions. |
'''Glass reinforced aluminium''' ('''GLARE''') is a [[fiber metal laminate]] (FML) composed of several very thin layers of metal (usually [[aluminium]]) interspersed with layers of S-2 [[fiberglass|glass-fiber]] ''[[pre-preg]]'', bonded together with a matrix such as [[epoxy]]. The uni-directional pre-preg layers may be aligned in different directions to suit predicted [[stress (physics)|stress]] conditions. |
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Though GLARE is a [[composite material]],<ref name="orimaterial"> |
Though GLARE is a [[composite material]],<ref name="orimaterial">{{cite journal |title=Advanced aerospace materials: past, present and future |pages=22-27 |author-last1=King |author-first1=David |author-last2=Inderwildi |author-first2=Oliver |author-last3=Carey |author-first3=Chris |issue=March 2009 |journal=Aviation and the Environment |oclc=500326779 |issn=1755-9421 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/292274287_Advanced_aerospace_materials_past_present_and_future |dead-url=no |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629104148/users.ox.ac.uk/~smit0008/Publications_files/ORI-Aviation-Materials-2009.pdf |archive-date=June 29, 2011}}</ref> its material properties and fabrication are very similar to bulk aluminium metal sheets. It has far less in common with composite structures when it comes to design, manufacture, inspection, or maintenance. GLARE parts are constructed and repaired using mostly conventional metal working techniques. |
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Its major advantages over conventional aluminium are: |
Its major advantages over conventional aluminium are: |
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Furthermore, it is possible to "tailor" the material during design and manufacture such that the number, type and alignment of layers can suit the local stresses and shapes throughout the aircraft. This allows the production of double-curved sections, complex integrated panels or very large sheets, for example. |
Furthermore, it is possible to "tailor" the material during design and manufacture such that the number, type and alignment of layers can suit the local stresses and shapes throughout the aircraft. This allows the production of double-curved sections, complex integrated panels or very large sheets, for example. |
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While a simple manufactured sheet of GLARE is more expensive than an equivalent sheet of aluminium, considerable production savings can be made using the aforementioned optimization. A structure properly designed for GLARE is significantly lighter and less complex than an equivalent metal structure, requires less inspection and maintenance, and has a longer ''lifetime-till failure'', often making it cheaper, lighter, and safer in the long run. |
While a simple manufactured sheet of GLARE is more expensive than an equivalent sheet of aluminium, considerable production savings can be made using the aforementioned optimization. A structure properly designed for GLARE is significantly lighter and less complex than an equivalent metal structure, requires less inspection and maintenance, and has a longer ''lifetime-till failure'', often making it cheaper, lighter, and safer in the long run. |
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== History == |
== History == |
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GLARE is a relatively successful FML, patented by [[Akzo Nobel]] in 1987. It has entered commercial application in the [[Airbus A380]]. The several patents mention among others as inventors Vogelesang, Schijve, Roebroeks and Marissen,<ref>Garesche, C. E., Roebroeks, G. H. J. J., Greidanus, V., Gunnink, J. W., Oost, R. C., & Greidanus, B. (1994). Laminated panel for aircraft fuselage - comprises metal layers with splices in staggered relation in adjacent layers and fibre-reinforced adhesive layers between the metal layers.</ref><ref> |
GLARE is a relatively successful FML, patented by [[Akzo Nobel]] in 1987. It has entered commercial application in the [[Airbus A380]]. The several patents mention among others as inventors Vogelesang, Schijve, Roebroeks and Marissen,<ref>Garesche, C. E., Roebroeks, G. H. J. J., Greidanus, V., Gunnink, J. W., Oost, R. C., & Greidanus, B. (1994). Laminated panel for aircraft fuselage - comprises metal layers with splices in staggered relation in adjacent layers and fibre-reinforced adhesive layers between the metal layers.</ref><ref> |
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Schijve, J., Vogelesang, L., & Marissen, R. (1982). Laminate aluminium contg. metal sheets and aramid fibre sheets - bonded together by thermosetting adhesives, used in spacecraft and aircraft.</ref> then professors and researchers at the [[Faculty of Aerospace Engineering, Delft University of Technology]], where much of the |
Schijve, J., Vogelesang, L., & Marissen, R. (1982). Laminate aluminium contg. metal sheets and aramid fibre sheets - bonded together by thermosetting adhesives, used in spacecraft and aircraft.</ref> then professors and researchers at the [[Faculty of Aerospace Engineering, Delft University of Technology]], where much of the [[research and development]] on FML was done in the 1970s and 1980s. |
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The fruition of FML development marks a step in the long history of research that started in 1945 at [[Fokker]], where earlier bonding experience at [[DeHavilland|de Havilland]] inspired investigation into the improved properties of bonded aluminium laminates compared to monolithic aluminium. Later, [[NASA]] got interested in reinforcing metal parts with composite materials as part of the [[Space Shuttle]] program led to the introduction of fibers to the bond layers, and the concept of FMLs was born. |
The fruition of FML development marks a step in the long history of research that started in 1945 at [[Fokker]], where earlier bonding experience at [[DeHavilland|de Havilland]] inspired investigation into the improved properties of bonded aluminium laminates compared to monolithic aluminium. Later, [[NASA]] got interested in reinforcing metal parts with composite materials as part of the [[Space Shuttle]] program led to the introduction of fibers to the bond layers, and the concept of FMLs was born. |
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Further research and co-operation of [[Fokker]] with [[Delft University of Technology|Delft University]],<ref>{{cite journal|last=Morinière|first=Freddy D.|author2=Alderliesten, René C. |author3=Tooski, Mehdi Yarmohammad |author4= Benedictus, Rinze |title=Damage evolution in GLARE fibre-metal laminate under repeated low-velocity impact tests|journal=Central European Journal of Engineering|date=26 July 2012|volume=2|issue=4|pages=603–611|doi=10.2478/s13531-012-0019-z}}</ref> the Dutch Aerospace Laboratory [[:nl:Nationaal Lucht- en Ruimtevaartlaboratorium|NLR]], [[3M]], [[Alcoa]] and various other companies and institutions led to the first FML, the [[Aramid fiber]] based ARALL. This proved to have some cost, manufacturing and application problems (while it had a very high tensile strength; compression, off-axis loading and cyclic loading proved problematic), which lead to an improved version with [[glass |
Further research and co-operation of [[Fokker]] with [[Delft University of Technology|Delft University]],<ref>{{cite journal|last=Morinière|first=Freddy D.|author2=Alderliesten, René C. |author3=Tooski, Mehdi Yarmohammad |author4= Benedictus, Rinze |title=Damage evolution in GLARE fibre-metal laminate under repeated low-velocity impact tests|journal=Central European Journal of Engineering|date=26 July 2012|volume=2|issue=4|pages=603–611|doi=10.2478/s13531-012-0019-z}}</ref> the Dutch Aerospace Laboratory [[:nl:Nationaal Lucht- en Ruimtevaartlaboratorium|NLR]], [[3M]], [[Alcoa]] and various other companies and institutions led to the first FML, the [[Aramid fiber]] based ARALL. This proved to have some cost, manufacturing and application problems (while it had a very high tensile strength; compression, off-axis loading and cyclic loading proved problematic), which lead to an improved version with [[glass fiber]] instead of aramid fibers. |
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Over the course of the development of the material, which took more than 30 years from start to the major application on the [[Airbus A380]], many other production and development partners have been involved, including [[Boeing]], [[McDonnell Douglas]], [[Bombardier Inc.|Bombardier]], and the [[US Air Force]].<ref>Berends, H., van Burg, E., & van Raaij, E. M. (2011). [http://orgsci.journal.informs.org/content/22/4/940.full.pdf+html Contacts and contracts: Cross-level network dynamics in the development of an aircraft material.] Organization Science, 22(4), 940–960.</ref> Over the course of time, companies withdrew from this involvement, sometimes to come back after a couple of years, like [[Alcoa]] who withdrew in 1995 to come back in 2004 and withdrew once again in 2010. These strategic decisions show the dynamic nature of innovation processes.<ref>Van Burg, E., Berends, H., & van Raaij, E. M. (2014). [http://hdl.handle.net/1871/47108 Framing and Interorganizational Knowledge Transfer: A Process Study of Collaborative Innovation in the Aircraft Industry.] Journal of Management Studies, 51(3), 349–378.</ref> |
Over the course of the development of the material, which took more than 30 years from start to the major application on the [[Airbus A380]], many other production and development partners have been involved, including [[Boeing]], [[McDonnell Douglas]], [[Bombardier Inc.|Bombardier]], and the [[US Air Force]].<ref>Berends, H., van Burg, E., & van Raaij, E. M. (2011). [http://orgsci.journal.informs.org/content/22/4/940.full.pdf+html Contacts and contracts: Cross-level network dynamics in the development of an aircraft material.] Organization Science, 22(4), 940–960.</ref> Over the course of time, companies withdrew from this involvement, sometimes to come back after a couple of years, like [[Alcoa]] who withdrew in 1995 to come back in 2004 and withdrew once again in 2010. These strategic decisions show the dynamic nature of innovation processes.<ref>Van Burg, E., Berends, H., & van Raaij, E. M. (2014). [http://hdl.handle.net/1871/47108 Framing and Interorganizational Knowledge Transfer: A Process Study of Collaborative Innovation in the Aircraft Industry.] Journal of Management Studies, 51(3), 349–378.</ref> |
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== Current production == |
== Current production == |
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There are six standard GLARE grades (GLARE1 through GLARE6), with densities ranging from {{convert|2.38|to|2.52|g/cm3|lb/in3}}.<ref name="IntechOpen">Sang Yoon Park and Won Jong Choi (November 5th 2018). The Guidelines of Material Design and Process Control on Hybrid Fiber Metal Laminate for Aircraft Structures [Working Title], IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78217. Available from: https://www.intechopen.com/online-first/the-guidelines-of-material-design-and-process-control-on-hybrid-fiber-metal-laminate-for-aircraft-st/</ref> These densities are smaller than the {{cvt|2.78|g/cm3|lb/in3}} density of [[2024-T3 aluminium]] alloy,<ref name="CACT">{{cite book |last1=Breuer |first1=Ulf Paul |title=Commercial Aircraft Composite Technology |date=2016 |publisher=Springer International Publishing Switzerland |location=Kaiserslautern, Germany |isbn=9783319319186 |page=51 |edition=corrected publication May 2018 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z60qDAAAQBAJ&lpg=PR1&dq=inauthor%3A%22Ulf%20Paul%20Breuer%22&pg=PA51#v=onepage&q&f=false |accessdate=11 December 2018 |language=English |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-31918-6 |chapter=Material Technology}}</ref> a common [[aluminium alloy]] in aircraft structures that is also incorporated into all but one of these GLARE grades. (GLARE1 uses the [[7075-T6 aluminium]] alloy instead.)<ref name="FatigueAndFracture">{{cite book |last1=Alderliesten |first1=René |title=Fatigue and Fracture of Fibre Metal Laminates |publisher=Springer, Cham |isbn=978-3-319-56226-1 |oclc=1048940338 |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-56227-8_2 |pages=7-27 |url=https://www.springer.com/cda/content/document/cda_downloaddocument/9783319562261-c2.pdf |accessdate=11 December 2018 |language=English |format=PDF |chapter=2: Laminate Concepts & Mechanical Properties}}</ref> The GLARE grade numbers increase with the number and complexity of prepreg plies and orientations within a composite layer,<ref name="IntechOpen" /> since the strength of the composite varies with fiber direction. GLARE2, GLARE4, and GLARE6 have A and B variants that have the same number of plies but with alternate fiber orientations. The standard GLARE grades are cured at {{convert|120|C|F}} and use the FM94 epoxy pre-preg.<ref name="FatigueAndFracture" /> |
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A newer class of GLARE, called high static strength GLARE (HSS GLARE), incorporates the 7475-T761 [[alloy]] and cures at {{convert|175|C|F}} using FM906 epoxy pre-preg. HSS GLARE comes in three grades (HSS GLARE3, HSS GLARE4A, and HSS GLARE4B), mirroring the plies and orientations of their corresponding standard GLARE grades.<ref name="FatigueAndFracture" /> |
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GLARE is currently produced by GKN-Fokker in the Netherlands and Airbus in Nordenham, Germany. GKN- Fokker opened a brand new facility next to its existing facilities in Papendrecht, the Netherlands where they produce Glare sheets of {{nowrap|4.5 x 11.5 m}}, including the milling of doors windows etc. on a 5-axis milling machine with a movable bed. |
GLARE is currently produced by GKN-Fokker in the Netherlands and Airbus in Nordenham, Germany. GKN- Fokker opened a brand new facility next to its existing facilities in Papendrecht, the Netherlands where they produce Glare sheets of {{nowrap|4.5 x 11.5 m}}, including the milling of doors windows etc. on a 5-axis milling machine with a movable bed. |
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GLARE has also been used to make cargo doors for later models of the [[C-17 Globemaster III]]. |
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== See also == |
== See also == |
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== References == |
== References == |
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{{reflist|30em}} |
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<references /> |
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==External links== |
==External links== |
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* [http://www.lr.tudelft.nl/live/pagina.jsp?id=f75b9280-88fd-40e8-970d-6eff6dd33c85&lang=en tudelft.nl - Research on Glare at the University of Delft] |
* [http://www.lr.tudelft.nl/live/pagina.jsp?id=f75b9280-88fd-40e8-970d-6eff6dd33c85&lang=en tudelft.nl - Research on Glare at the University of Delft] |
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* {{cite news |title=Fiber-metal laminates in the spotlight: Interest in FMLs is growing again as aeroengineers search for lightweight solutions adaptable to new narrowbody commercial aircraft. |magazine=CompositesWorld |author-last1=Black |author-first1=Sara |date=July 12, 2017 |access-date=December 11, 2018 |url=https://www.compositesworld.com/articles/fiber-metal-laminates-in-the-spotlight}} |
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* https://www.scribd.com/doc/49691211/ORI-Aviation-Materials-2009 |
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Glare (Material)}} |
{{DEFAULTSORT:Glare (Material)}} |
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Revision as of 20:47, 11 December 2018
 | This article contains content that is written like an advertisement. (April 2010) |
Glass reinforced aluminium (GLARE) is a fiber metal laminate (FML) composed of several very thin layers of metal (usually aluminium) interspersed with layers of S-2 glass-fiber pre-preg, bonded together with a matrix such as epoxy. The uni-directional pre-preg layers may be aligned in different directions to suit predicted stress conditions.
Though GLARE is a composite material,[1] its material properties and fabrication are very similar to bulk aluminium metal sheets. It has far less in common with composite structures when it comes to design, manufacture, inspection, or maintenance. GLARE parts are constructed and repaired using mostly conventional metal working techniques.
Its major advantages over conventional aluminium are:
- Better "damage tolerance" behavior (especially impact and metal fatigue, as the elastic strain is larger than other metal material it can consume more impact energy. It is dented easier but has a higher penetration resistance )
- Better corrosion resistance
- Better fire resistance
- Lower specific weight
Furthermore, it is possible to "tailor" the material during design and manufacture such that the number, type and alignment of layers can suit the local stresses and shapes throughout the aircraft. This allows the production of double-curved sections, complex integrated panels or very large sheets, for example.
While a simple manufactured sheet of GLARE is more expensive than an equivalent sheet of aluminium, considerable production savings can be made using the aforementioned optimization. A structure properly designed for GLARE is significantly lighter and less complex than an equivalent metal structure, requires less inspection and maintenance, and has a longer lifetime-till failure, often making it cheaper, lighter, and safer in the long run.
History
GLARE is a relatively successful FML, patented by Akzo Nobel in 1987. It has entered commercial application in the Airbus A380. The several patents mention among others as inventors Vogelesang, Schijve, Roebroeks and Marissen,[2][3] then professors and researchers at the Faculty of Aerospace Engineering, Delft University of Technology, where much of the research and development on FML was done in the 1970s and 1980s.
The fruition of FML development marks a step in the long history of research that started in 1945 at Fokker, where earlier bonding experience at de Havilland inspired investigation into the improved properties of bonded aluminium laminates compared to monolithic aluminium. Later, NASA got interested in reinforcing metal parts with composite materials as part of the Space Shuttle program led to the introduction of fibers to the bond layers, and the concept of FMLs was born.
Further research and co-operation of Fokker with Delft University,[4] the Dutch Aerospace Laboratory NLR, 3M, Alcoa and various other companies and institutions led to the first FML, the Aramid fiber based ARALL. This proved to have some cost, manufacturing and application problems (while it had a very high tensile strength; compression, off-axis loading and cyclic loading proved problematic), which lead to an improved version with glass fiber instead of aramid fibers.
Over the course of the development of the material, which took more than 30 years from start to the major application on the Airbus A380, many other production and development partners have been involved, including Boeing, McDonnell Douglas, Bombardier, and the US Air Force.[5] Over the course of time, companies withdrew from this involvement, sometimes to come back after a couple of years, like Alcoa who withdrew in 1995 to come back in 2004 and withdrew once again in 2010. These strategic decisions show the dynamic nature of innovation processes.[6]
Applications
Besides the applications on the Airbus A380 fuselage, GLARE has multiple 'secondary' applications. GLARE is also the material used in the ECOS3 blast-resistant Unit Load Device. This is freight container shown to completely contain the explosion and fire resulting from a bomb such as that used over Lockerbie. Other applications include among others the application in the Learjet 45 and in the past also in cargo floors of the Boeing 737.
Current production
There are six standard GLARE grades (GLARE1 through GLARE6), with densities ranging from 2.38 to 2.52 grams per cubic centimetre (0.086 to 0.091 lb/cu in).[7] These densities are smaller than the 2.78 g/cm3 (0.100 lb/cu in) density of 2024-T3 aluminium alloy,[8] a common aluminium alloy in aircraft structures that is also incorporated into all but one of these GLARE grades. (GLARE1 uses the 7075-T6 aluminium alloy instead.)[9] The GLARE grade numbers increase with the number and complexity of prepreg plies and orientations within a composite layer,[7] since the strength of the composite varies with fiber direction. GLARE2, GLARE4, and GLARE6 have A and B variants that have the same number of plies but with alternate fiber orientations. The standard GLARE grades are cured at 120 °C (248 °F) and use the FM94 epoxy pre-preg.[9]
A newer class of GLARE, called high static strength GLARE (HSS GLARE), incorporates the 7475-T761 alloy and cures at 175 °C (347 °F) using FM906 epoxy pre-preg. HSS GLARE comes in three grades (HSS GLARE3, HSS GLARE4A, and HSS GLARE4B), mirroring the plies and orientations of their corresponding standard GLARE grades.[9]
GLARE is currently produced by GKN-Fokker in the Netherlands and Airbus in Nordenham, Germany. GKN- Fokker opened a brand new facility next to its existing facilities in Papendrecht, the Netherlands where they produce Glare sheets of 4.5 x 11.5 m, including the milling of doors windows etc. on a 5-axis milling machine with a movable bed.
GLARE has also been used to make cargo doors for later models of the C-17 Globemaster III.
See also
Bibliography
- Vermeeren, Coen (Editor) Around Glare: A New Aircraft Material in Context Published by Springer, August 1, 2002 ISBN 1-4020-0778-7
- Vlot, Ad Glare: history of the development of a new aircraft material Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2001 ISBN 1-4020-0124-X
References
- ^ King, David; Inderwildi, Oliver; Carey, Chris. "Advanced aerospace materials: past, present and future" (PDF). Aviation and the Environment (March 2009): 22–27. ISSN 1755-9421. OCLC 500326779. Archived from the original on June 29, 2011.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|dead-url=ignored (|url-status=suggested) (help) - ^ Garesche, C. E., Roebroeks, G. H. J. J., Greidanus, V., Gunnink, J. W., Oost, R. C., & Greidanus, B. (1994). Laminated panel for aircraft fuselage - comprises metal layers with splices in staggered relation in adjacent layers and fibre-reinforced adhesive layers between the metal layers.
- ^ Schijve, J., Vogelesang, L., & Marissen, R. (1982). Laminate aluminium contg. metal sheets and aramid fibre sheets - bonded together by thermosetting adhesives, used in spacecraft and aircraft.
- ^ Morinière, Freddy D.; Alderliesten, René C.; Tooski, Mehdi Yarmohammad; Benedictus, Rinze (26 July 2012). "Damage evolution in GLARE fibre-metal laminate under repeated low-velocity impact tests". Central European Journal of Engineering. 2 (4): 603–611. doi:10.2478/s13531-012-0019-z.
- ^ Berends, H., van Burg, E., & van Raaij, E. M. (2011). Contacts and contracts: Cross-level network dynamics in the development of an aircraft material. Organization Science, 22(4), 940–960.
- ^ Van Burg, E., Berends, H., & van Raaij, E. M. (2014). Framing and Interorganizational Knowledge Transfer: A Process Study of Collaborative Innovation in the Aircraft Industry. Journal of Management Studies, 51(3), 349–378.
- ^ a b Sang Yoon Park and Won Jong Choi (November 5th 2018). The Guidelines of Material Design and Process Control on Hybrid Fiber Metal Laminate for Aircraft Structures [Working Title], IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78217. Available from: https://www.intechopen.com/online-first/the-guidelines-of-material-design-and-process-control-on-hybrid-fiber-metal-laminate-for-aircraft-st/
- ^ Breuer, Ulf Paul (2016). "Material Technology". Commercial Aircraft Composite Technology (corrected publication May 2018 ed.). Kaiserslautern, Germany: Springer International Publishing Switzerland. p. 51. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-31918-6. ISBN 9783319319186. Retrieved 11 December 2018.
- ^ a b c Alderliesten, René. "2: Laminate Concepts & Mechanical Properties". Fatigue and Fracture of Fibre Metal Laminates (PDF). Springer, Cham. pp. 7–27. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-56227-8_2. ISBN 978-3-319-56226-1. OCLC 1048940338. Retrieved 11 December 2018.
External links
- tudelft.nl - Research on Glare at the University of Delft
- Black, Sara (July 12, 2017). "Fiber-metal laminates in the spotlight: Interest in FMLs is growing again as aeroengineers search for lightweight solutions adaptable to new narrowbody commercial aircraft". CompositesWorld. Retrieved December 11, 2018.