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The largest masked booby colony is on Clipperton Island in the eastern Pacific Ocean,<ref name="hbw"/> a desert atoll southwest of Mexico. In 2003, 112,000 birds were counted, having recovered from 150 individuals in 1958. The birds had suffered from the 1890s introduction of feral pigs, which preyed on the crabs that ate the vegetation. After the elimination of pigs in 1964, the crab population rose and vegetation largely disappeared. This was beneficial to the boobies as they prefer open ground.<ref name="Pitman et al. 2005">{{cite journal |last1=Pitman |first1=Robert L. |first2=Lisa T. |last2=Ballance |first3=Charly |last3=Bost |year=2005 |title=Clipperton Island: pigsty, rat hole and booby prize |journal=Marine Ornithology |url=http://mundo.cabrillo.edu/~ncrane/Clipperton/ratsandpigs.pdf |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=193–194 |doi=}}</ref> Clipperton is on a narrow ridge surrounded by deep water.<ref name="Weimerskirch08">{{cite journal |last1=Weimerskirch |first1=Henri | first2= Matthieu | last2=Le Corre | first3= Charles A. | last3=Bost |title=Foraging strategy of masked boobies from the largest colony in the world: relationship to environmental conditions and fisheries |journal=Marine Ecology Progress Series |date=2008 |volume=362 |pages=291–302 |doi=10.3354/meps07424 |url=https://www.int-res.com/articles/meps2008/362/m362p291.pdf}}</ref> The colony on Lord Howe Island numbered in the thousands at the time of the island's discovery in 1788, but has declined to under 500 pairs—mostly on offshore islets with the remainder on two hard to access headlands—by 2005. Hunting by people is thought to have played a role; although rats were introduced to the island in 1918, there has been no evidence they are able to kill chick or eggs—possibly due to the size of the adult boobies.<ref name=Priddel05>{{cite journal |last1=Priddel |first1=David |first2=Ian |last2=Hutton |first3=Samantha|last3= Olson |first4= Robert |last4=Wheeler | title=Breeding biology of Masked Boobies (''Sula dactylatra tasmani'') on Lord Howe Island, Australia |journal=Emu |date=2005 |volume=105 |issue=2 |pages=105-113 |doi=10.1071/MU04028}}</ref>
The largest masked booby colony is on Clipperton Island in the eastern Pacific Ocean,<ref name="hbw"/> a desert atoll southwest of Mexico. In 2003, 112,000 birds were counted, having recovered from 150 individuals in 1958. The birds had suffered from the 1890s introduction of feral pigs, which preyed on the crabs that ate the vegetation. After the elimination of pigs in 1964, the crab population rose and vegetation largely disappeared. This was beneficial to the boobies as they prefer open ground.<ref name="Pitman et al. 2005">{{cite journal |last1=Pitman |first1=Robert L. |first2=Lisa T. |last2=Ballance |first3=Charly |last3=Bost |year=2005 |title=Clipperton Island: pigsty, rat hole and booby prize |journal=Marine Ornithology |url=http://mundo.cabrillo.edu/~ncrane/Clipperton/ratsandpigs.pdf |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=193–194 |doi=}}</ref> Clipperton is on a narrow ridge surrounded by deep water.<ref name="Weimerskirch08">{{cite journal |last1=Weimerskirch |first1=Henri | first2= Matthieu | last2=Le Corre | first3= Charles A. | last3=Bost |title=Foraging strategy of masked boobies from the largest colony in the world: relationship to environmental conditions and fisheries |journal=Marine Ecology Progress Series |date=2008 |volume=362 |pages=291–302 |doi=10.3354/meps07424 |url=https://www.int-res.com/articles/meps2008/362/m362p291.pdf}}</ref> The colony on Lord Howe Island numbered in the thousands at the time of the island's discovery in 1788, but has declined to under 500 pairs—mostly on offshore islets with the remainder on two hard to access headlands—by 2005. Hunting by people is thought to have played a role; although rats were introduced to the island in 1918, there has been no evidence they are able to kill chick or eggs—possibly due to the size of the adult boobies.<ref name=Priddel05>{{cite journal |last1=Priddel |first1=David |first2=Ian |last2=Hutton |first3=Samantha|last3= Olson |first4= Robert |last4=Wheeler | title=Breeding biology of Masked Boobies (''Sula dactylatra tasmani'') on Lord Howe Island, Australia |journal=Emu |date=2005 |volume=105 |issue=2 |pages=105-113 |doi=10.1071/MU04028}}</ref>

The species attempted to nest at [[Dry Tortugas]] over 1984 and 1985.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Clapp |first1=Roger | First2= William B. Jr | last=Robertson |title=Nesting of the Masked Booby on the Dry Tortugas, Florida: The First Record for the Contiguous United States |journal=Colonial Waterbirds |date=1986 |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=113-116 |doi=10.2307/1521152}}</ref>


== Behaviour ==
== Behaviour ==

Revision as of 21:33, 1 June 2019

Masked booby
On Midway Atoll
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Suliformes
Family: Sulidae
Genus: Sula
Species:
S. dactylatra
Binomial name
Sula dactylatra
Lesson, 1831
Subspecies

see text

Sula dactylatra - Muséum de Toulouse

The masked booby (Sula dactylatra), also called the masked gannet or the blue-faced booby, is a large seabird of the booby family, Sulidae. First described by French naturalist René-Primevère Lesson in 1831, the masked booby is one of six species of booby in the genus Sula. It has a typical sulid body shape, with a long pointed yellowish bill, long neck, aerodynamic body, long slender wings and pointed tail. The adult is bright white with black and white wings, a black tail and a dark face mask; at 75–85 cm (30–33 in) long, it is the largest species of booby. This species ranges across tropical oceans, except in the eastern Atlantic; in the eastern Pacific it is replaced by the Nazca booby (Sula granti) which was formerly regarded as a subspecies of masked booby.[2][3]

Nesting takes place in colonies, generally on islands and atolls far from mainland and close to deep water required for foraging. Territorial when breeding, the masked booby performs agonistic displays to defend its nest. Potential and mated pairs engage in courtship and greeting displays. The female lays two chalky white eggs in a shallow depression on flat ground away from vegetation. The chicks are born featherless but are soon covered in white down. The second chick born generally does not survive and is killed by its elder sibling. These birds are plunge divers and spectacular fishers, plunging into the ocean at high speed. They eat mainly flying fish that school near the surface. The species faces few natural or man-made threats, although since its population is declinng it is considered to be a least-concern species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).

Taxonomy

The French naturalist René-Primevère Lesson was a member of the crew on the French corvette La Coquille captained by Louis Isidore Duperrey on its voyage around the world undertaken between August 1822 and March 1825.[4] In the multi-volume publication by Duperrey about the voyage, Lesson authored the ornithological sections. In his 1829 account of the visit to Ascension Island in the South Atlantic Ocean Lesson mentioned encountering masked boobies, and in a footnote proposed the binomial name Sula dactylatra.[5] Lesson subsequently provided a formal description of the masked booby in 1831.[6] The specific epithet combines the Ancient Greek dactyl "finger" and the Latin ater "black". "Black fingers" refers to the splayed wingtips in flight.[7] Swedish zoologist Carl Jakob Sundevall described it as Dysporus cyanops in 1837,[8] from a subadult collected in the Atlantic Ocean on 6 September 1827.[9] The species name was derived from the Ancient Greek words cyanos "blue",[10] and ops "face".[11]

The English ornithologist and bird artist John Gould described Sula personata in 1846 from Australia,[12] the species name being the Latin adjective personata "masked".[13] Gould adopted the name Sula cyanops in his 1865 Handbook to the Birds of Australia.[14] Sundevall's binomial name was followed as Lesson's 1829 record did not sufficiently describe the species, however in 1911 Australian amateur ornithologist Gregory Mathews pointed out that although Lesson's 1829 account did not describe the bird, his 1831 account did and thus predated Sundevall by six years, and hence Sula dactylactra had priority.[15] The American Ornithological Union followed in their 17th supplement to their checklist in 1920.[16]

"Masked booby" has been designated the official name by the International Ornithologists' Union (IOC).[17] It has also been called masked gannet, blue-faced booby, white booby (for its plumage), and whistling booby (for its distinctive call).[7] Australian ornithologist Doug Dorward promoted the name "white booby" as he felt the blue coloration of its face was less prominent than that of the red-footed booby.[18]

The masked booby is one of six species of booby in the genus Sula.[17] A genetic study using both nuclear and mitochondrial DNA showed the masked and Nazca boobies to be each other's closest relatives, their lineage diverging from a line that gave rise to the blue-footed and Peruvian boobies. The masked and Nazca boobies were divergent enough to indicate the latter, formerly regarded as a subspecies of the former, should be classified as a separate species. Molecular evidence suggests they most likely diverged between 0.8 and 1.1 million years ago. Complex water currents in the eastern Pacific may have established an environmental barrier leading to speciation.[19]

Intraspecific variation and subspecies

Reviewing the genus in 1915, British zoologist Walter Rothschild recognised five subspecies.[20]

There is a clinal change in size across its range, where birds in the Atlantic are the smallest, with the size increasing westwards though the Pacific to the Indian Ocean, where the largest individuals are found.[21] Genetic analysis using mtDNA control region sequences shows that populations in the Indian and Pacific Oceans greatly expanded around 180,000 years ago, and that these became separated from Atlantic populations around 115,000 years ago. Furthermore, within each ocean, there is evidence of reduced gene flow between populations that does not correspond with any physical barrier.[22]

Four subspecies are recognized by the International Ornithologists' Union.[17]

  • S. d. dactylatra Lesson, 1831
Breeds in the Caribbean and some Atlantic islands including Ascension Island. It has recently started breeding off Tobago, formerly being known in this area only from a single sight record from an oil rig off Trinidad. There is significant genetic divergence between birds on Boatswain Bird Island off Ascension and those from Monito Island off Puerto Rico.[22]
  • S. d. melanops Hartlaub, 1859
Breeds in the western Indian Ocean.[23] Hartlaub described this taxon in 1859 from Maydh Island off the coast of Somalia near Maydh. He noted its black mask and blue-grey feet to be distinct from Sundevall's cyanops with a blue face, and Lesson's dactylatra with yellow feet.[24] The subspecies name is derived from the Ancient Greek words mela(no)s "black",[25] and ops "face".
  • S. d. tasmani van Tets, Meredith, Fullagar & Davidson, 1988 (includes S. d. fullagari as a junior synonym): Tasman booby or Lord Howe masked booby
The form breeding on Lord Howe and the Kermadec Islands. New Zealand naturalist Walter Oliver had noted that this bird had dark brown rather than pale irises in 1930, but it was not until 1990 that it was formally investigated by O'Brien and Davies and found to also have longer wings than other populations. They classified it as a new subspecies: S. d. fullagari.[26] Meanwhile, large prehistoric specimens known from the former and Norfolk Island were classified as a separate species, S. tasmani, in 1988, thought to have become extinct from Polynesian and then European seafarers and settlers.[27] However, Holdaway and colleagues cast doubt on the distinctness of the fossil taxon in 2001,[28] and a 2010 review by Tammy Steeves and colleagues of the fossil material and DNA found the two overlapped considerably, and hence the extinct and living entities were found to be the same taxon, now known as S. d. tasmani as it has priority over S. d. fullagari.[29] Fieldwork in the Kermadec Islands indicates the bills of adults are bright yellow, and that adult males had brighter yellow feet than females.[30]
  • S. d. personata Gould, 1846 (includes S. d. californica and S. d. bedouti)
Breeds in the central and western Pacific and around Australia, as well as off Mexico and on Clipperton Island in the Pacific Ocean off the coast of Central America. Birds of the latter two locations have been separated as subspecies californica, and the north west Australian population has been named as subspecies bedouti, but neither is usually considered distinct;[17] Pitman and colleagues found no consistent differences between these three subspecies.[2]

Description

The largest species of booby, the masked booby ranges from 75 to 85 cm (30 to 33 in) long, with a 160–170 cm (63–67 in) wingspan and 1.2–2.2 kg (2.6–4.9 lb) weight. It has a typical sulid body shape, with a long pointed bill, long neck, aerodynamic body, long slender wings and pointed tail. The adult is almost wholly bright white with a dark face mask. The sexes have similar plumage, and there is no seasonal variation.[31] The bare skin around the face, thoat and lores is black and the bill is yellow or greenish-yellow, sometimes greyish at the base.[32] Conical in shape, the bill is longer than the head and tapers to a slightly downcurved tip. Backward-pointing serrations line the mandibles.[33] The wings and tail are brown-black, the individual feathers are dark with white bases and shafts. The underwing is white.[34] The iris is yellow except for the subspecies S. d. tasmani where the iris is dark brown.[32]

The juvenile is a streaked or mottled grey-brown on the head and upperparts, with a whitish neck collar. The wings are dark brown and underparts are white. Its bill is yellowish, face is blue-grey and iris a dark brown. Older immature birds have a broader white collar and rump,[31] and more and more white feathers on the head until the head is wholly white by 14 to 15 months of age. Full adult plumage is acquired three to four months before the bird turns three years old.[32]

Juvenile off the Goa coast

The masked booby is usually silent at sea, but is noisy at the nesting colonies. The main call of male birds is a descending whistle; that of females is a loud honk.[35]

The adult masked booby is distinguished from the related Nazca booby by its yellow rather than orange bill, larger size and less distinctive sexual dimorphism. The latter nests on steeper cliffs rather than flat ground.[2] The white morph of the red-footed booby is similar but smaller.[21] Abbott's booby has a more wholly black upperwing, and a longer neck and tail and larger head, while the Cape and Australasian gannets have a buff-yellow crown, shorter tail, white humerals and a grey rather than yellowish bill. The juvenile masked booby resembles the brown booby, though adults of that species have clearly demarcated brown and white plumage.[31]

Distribution and habitat

The masked booby is found across tropical oceans between the 30th parallel north and 30th parallel south. In the Indian Ocean it ranges from the coastlines of the Arabian Peninsula and East Africa across to Sumatra and Western Australia, though it is not found off the coast of the Indian subcontinent. Off the Western Australian coastline it is found as far south as the Dampier Archipelago. In the Pacific, it ranges from Brisbane eastwards. It is found in the Caribbean and Atlantic Ocean south to Ascension Island.[36] In the eastern Pacific off the coast of Middle America, the masked booby is replaced by the Nazca booby (Sula granti).[2]

During the monsoon season (midyear), the masked booby is an occasional vagrant along the western coast of India, with records from Kerala, Karnataka, and Maharashtra states.[37] It is a vagrant to the Caroline Islands north of New Guinea.[38]

Caribbean birds occasionally wander north to warm southern Gulf Stream waters off the eastern seaboard of the United States.

The masked booby has been recorded in summer in Delaware Bay,[39] and waters off the coast of Spain.[40]

In the Pacific, a vagrant was rescued in 2015 in Newport, Oregon.[41]

Breeding colonies

Breeding colonies are located on remote islands, atolls and cays.[31] Lord Howe Island is the southernmost colony.[36] Deep water nearby is important for feeding, as an example waters around Raine Island, at the edge of the Great Barrier Reef, are anywhere from 180 to 3,700 m (590 to 12,140 ft) deep.[31] On these landforms, masked boobies select sites of generally flat, bare or exposed open ground that lies above the high-tide level with access to the ocean.[36] During the breeding season, the species remains near the colony. At other times, juveniles and some adults disperse widely though some remain at the colony year-round.[31]

The largest masked booby colony is on Clipperton Island in the eastern Pacific Ocean,[21] a desert atoll southwest of Mexico. In 2003, 112,000 birds were counted, having recovered from 150 individuals in 1958. The birds had suffered from the 1890s introduction of feral pigs, which preyed on the crabs that ate the vegetation. After the elimination of pigs in 1964, the crab population rose and vegetation largely disappeared. This was beneficial to the boobies as they prefer open ground.[42] Clipperton is on a narrow ridge surrounded by deep water.[43] The colony on Lord Howe Island numbered in the thousands at the time of the island's discovery in 1788, but has declined to under 500 pairs—mostly on offshore islets with the remainder on two hard to access headlands—by 2005. Hunting by people is thought to have played a role; although rats were introduced to the island in 1918, there has been no evidence they are able to kill chick or eggs—possibly due to the size of the adult boobies.[44]

The species attempted to nest at Dry Tortugas over 1984 and 1985.[45]

Behaviour

The masked booby generally flies at least 7 m (23 ft) in height, and at speeds of up to 70 km/h (43 mph). It alternates between gliding and active flying with strong periodic wingbeats.[31]

Breeding and courtship

Egg and chick in nest

Masked boobies form monogamous relationships, many of which remain together over multiple breeding seasons. Highly territorial when nesting, single males and mated pairs engage in agonistic displays to mark their ground against neighbours and interlopers. The male advertises his territory to females by flight circuiting; making a short flight and holding his wings in a 'V' shape and making landing call as he lands. The mated pair engages in outposting as other boobies fly overhead, stretching their necks out and forward. More direct trespassers are confronted with a yes-no headshaking, where the booby shakes its head from side to side or up and down and ruffling its head feathers to make its head look bigger and facial markings more prominent. It make cock its tail and hold its wings up away from its body.[46] Neighbouring boobies may escalate by jabbing and lunging at each other. In the pelican posture, a bird tucks the tip of its bill into its chest, possibly positioned to avoid injury to others. This posture is used against intruders or as advertising for a mate.[47]

There are several displays related to the establishment and maintenance of pair-bonding. The male initiates sky-pointing when a female approaches or leaves his territory, he paces slowly with its neck and bill pointed upwards - between vertical and 45 degrees - with wings partly raised and whistling faintly with an open bill. In a gazing display, one bird stares at another of the opposite sex; this generally leads to other displays. Pairs engage in a (mostly) gentler form of jabbing display, and allopreening. In an oblique headshake, a bird flings their head vigorously. The male may also parade in front of the female, walking with an exaggerated high-stepping gait and intermittently tucking his head in his breast, after collecting nesting material and before the pair begins laying. The male presents nesting material in a gesture of symbolic nest-building, which leads to copulation. Afterwards, the pair engages in more symbolic nest-building.[47]

Breeding takes place at different times of year throughout its range. On the Cocos (Keeling) Islands, egg-laying takes place from January to July, peaking in June, with juvenile birds from April to December. On Moulter Cay in the Coral Sea, breeding takes place year-round, with egg-laying peaking from September to early November, while on nearby Raine Island birds begin laying in or after August, likely peaking September to early November.[35] Eggs are laid between May and September on Lord Howe Island.[44] On Clipperton Island, egg-laying peaks in November to coordinate with peak fish productivity of the surrounding waters in January (for growing chicks).[43] Masked boobies lay at any time in the Caribbean, peaking between March and September.[48]

The masked booby nests in small colonies, on flat open areas such as sandy beaches, preferring places that are exposed to the prevailing winds as they are cooler. The nest is a cleared area 0.75 to 1 m (2 ft 6 in to 3 ft 3 in) in diameter, within which is a clearly demarcated 25 to 30 cm (10 to 12 in) shallow (1–2 cm (0.4–0.8 in) deep) depression. A clutch of two chalky white eggs is laid, with an interval of five to eight days between the laying of each egg. Occasionally nests with three eggs are reported; these are probably due to an egg from another nest rolling downhill into the nest.[35]

The eggs are incubated by both adults for 45 days.[44] Parents incubate the eggs by resting on their tarsi and wrapping their webbed feet over the eggs, with the outermost toes resting on the ground. Their feet are more vascular at this time.[18] At birth, the chicks are about 10 cm (3.9 in) long and weigh around 40–60 g (1.4–2.1 oz), with a sparse covering of white down over their grey to pinkish-grey skin. Altricial and nidicolous, their eyes are open at birth. Their down thickens as they age, and are quite fluffy by week 5–6. The primaries and retrices appear by week 8, and scapulars appear by week 10. They begin losing their down from week 12 onwards, until they are wholly covered by juvenile plumage by week 15 or 16.[34] After leaving the nest, young birds are dependent on their parents for 3–4 weeks before dispersing out to sea.[18]

Although two eggs are often laid, the younger chick almost always perishes within a few days. This has been observed widely across the species' range. Dorward suspected siblicide on Ascension Island.[18] Siblicide has been observed in the Nazca booby on the Galapagos Islands,[49] and is assumed to occur in the masked booby as well (despite not being observed as such.

The masked booby begins breeding by around four or five years of age, though can occasionally do so at three years old.[48] A bird tagged at Nepean Island (off Norfolk Island) in September 1979 was recovered and released after being caught in fishing gear 24 years 9.9 months later some 713 km (443 mi) away off the Isle of Pines, New Caledonia in July 2004. The longest distance travelled is 3,152 km (1,959 mi); a bird tagged at Raine Island in December 1981 was found picked up and released at Philip Island off Norfolk Island in December 1986.[50]

Feeding

The masked booby is a spectacular diver, plunging vertically or near-vertically from heights of anywhere from 12 to 100 m (40 to 330 ft)—but more commonly 15 to 35 m (50 to 115 ft)—above the water into the ocean at high speed, to depths of up to 3 m (9.8 ft).[51] Fieldwork at Clipperton Island showed that masked boobies flew on average to 103 km (64 mi) from their colony, with a maximum range of 242 km (150 mi), while feeding their chicks. They did not rest at sea at night, though part of their return trip was at night time for longer expeditions.[43]

Fish, particularly flying fish, up to 28 cm (11 in) long (rarely up to 41 cm (16 in)) form the bulk of its diet, along with cephalopods.[21] Species eaten include yellowtail amberjack (Seriola lalandi), skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis), various species of flying fish and mullet of the genus Mugil.[52]

The masked booby forages with the white-bellied storm petrel (Fregetta grallaria) and Bulwer's petrel (Bulweria bulwerii) at times.[53] Frigatebirds often harass the species till they disgorge their catch and steal their food.[21]

Predators and parasites

Silver gulls (Chroicocephalus novaehollandiae) and buff-banded rails (Gallirallus philippensis) prey on eggs and young. On Raine Island and Pandora Cay, nests have been destroyed by green sea turtles (Chelonia mydas).[34] Rats prey on eggs and young of many seabirds, though the size of masked boobies probably prevents direct predation. On Clipperton Island, rats prey on the crab that eats vegetation, hence increased vegetation growth reduces the bare ground suitable for nesting sites.[42]

Conservation status

The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) lists the Masked booby as a species of least concern, though the population worldwide is decreasing.[1] At Clipperton Island, the colony was benefitted by the presence of yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares), which drove their prey item—flying fish—to the surface, facilitating predation by boobies. It may be that overfishing of tuna might adversely impact the availability of fish there.[43]

References

  1. ^ a b Template:IUCN
  2. ^ a b c d Pitman, Robert L.; Jehl, Joseph R. Jnr. (1998). "Geographic variation and reassessment of species limits in the "Masked" Boobies of the Eastern Pacific Ocean" (PDF). The Wilson Bulletin. 110 (2): 155–170. JSTOR 4163925.
  3. ^ Friesen, V.L.; Anderson, D.J.; Steeves, T.E.; Jones, H.; Schreiber, E.A. (2002). "Molecular support for species status of the Nazca Booby (Sula granti)". Auk. 119 (3): 820–826. doi:10.1642/0004-8038(2002)119[0820:MSFSSO]2.0.CO;2.
  4. ^ Cretella, M. (2010). "The complete collation and dating of the section Zoologie of the Coquille voyage". Bollettino Malacologico. 46: 83–103.
  5. ^ Lesson, René (1829). Duperrey, Louis Isidore (ed.). Voyage autour du Monde, Exécuté par Ordre du Roi, Sur la Corvette de Sa Majesté, La Coquille, pendant les années 1822, 1823, 1824 et 1825. Zoologie (in French). Vol. Volume 1, Part 2. Paris: Arthus Bertrand. p. 494. {{cite book}}: |volume= has extra text (help) The title page gives the year as 1828 but the livraison containing page 494 was published in 1829 (See Cretella, 2010)
  6. ^ Lesson, René (1831). Traité d'Ornithologie, ou Tableau Méthodique (in French). Paris: F.G. Levrault. p. 601.
  7. ^ a b Gray, Jeannie; Fraser, Ian (2013). Australian Bird Names: A Complete Guide. Collingwood, Victoria: Csiro Publishing. p. 151. ISBN 978-0-643-10471-6.
  8. ^ Sundevall, Carl Jakob (1838). "Dysporus cyanops". Physiographiska Sällskapets Tidskrift (in Swedish). I (3): 218 [footnote].
  9. ^ Johanson, Kjell Arne. "NRM 569854 Dysporus cyanops Sundevall, 1838". Maturhistoriska riksmuseet (in Swedish). Retrieved 3 March 2019.
  10. ^ Liddell & Scott 1980, p. 397.
  11. ^ Liddell & Scott 1980, p. 804.
  12. ^ Gould, John (1846). "Descriptions of eleven new species of Australian birds". Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London. 14: 18–21. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1846.tb00135.x.
  13. ^ Simpson, D.P. (1979). Cassell's Latin Dictionary (5th ed.). London: Cassell Ltd. p. 442. ISBN 978-0-304-52257-6.
  14. ^ Gould, John (1865). Handbook to the Birds of Australia. Vol. Volume 2. London: self-published. pp. 506–507. {{cite book}}: |volume= has extra text (help)
  15. ^ Mathews, Gregory (1911). "On some necessary alterations in the nomenclature of birds". Novitates Zoologicae. 18: 9–10. doi:10.5962/bhl.part.1688.
  16. ^ "Seventeenth supplement to the American Ornithologists' Union check-list of North American Birds" (PDF). Auk. 37 (3): 439–49. 1920. doi:10.2307/4073271. JSTOR 4073271.
  17. ^ a b c d Gill, Frank; Donsker, David, eds. (2017). "Hamerkop, Shoebill, pelicans, boobies, cormorants". World Bird List Version 7.1. International Ornithologists' Union. Retrieved 31 January 2018.
  18. ^ a b c d Dorward, Douglas Fyffe (1962). "Comparative biology of the White Booby and the Brown Booby Sula spp. at Ascension". Ibis. 103B (2): 174–220. doi:10.1111/j.1474-919X.1962.tb07244.x.
  19. ^ Patterson, S.A.; Morris-Pocock, J.A.; Friesen, V.L (2011). "A multilocus phylogeny of the Sulidae (Aves: Pelecaniformes)". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 58 (2): 181–191. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2010.11.021.
  20. ^ Rothschild, Walter (1915). "Notes on the genus Sula". Bulletin of the British Ornithologists' Club. 35: 41–45.
  21. ^ a b c d e Orta, J.; Jutglar, F.; Garcia, E.F.J.; Kirwan, G.M.; Boesman, P. (2017). del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew; Sargatal, Jordi; Christie, David A.; de Juana, Eduardo (eds.). "Masked booby (Sula dactylatra)". Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive. Barcelona, Spain: Lynx Edicions. Retrieved 2 March 2019.
  22. ^ a b Steeves, Tammy E.; Anderson, David J.; Friesen, Vicki L. (2005). "A role for nonphysical barriers to gene flow in the diversification of a highly vagile seabird, the masked booby (Sula dactylatra)" (PDF). Molecular Ecology. 14 (12): 3877–3887. doi:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2005.02713.x.
  23. ^ Redman, Nigel; Stevenson, Terry; Fanshawe, John (2016). Birds of the Horn of Africa: Ethiopia, Eritrea, Djibouti, Somalia, and Socotra - Revised and Expanded Edition. Princeton Field Guides. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. p. 44. ISBN 978-0-691-17289-7.
  24. ^ Hartlaub, G. (1859). "List of birds observed and collected during a voyage in the Red Sea". The Ibis. 1 (4): 337–352 [351–352].
  25. ^ Liddell & Scott 1980, p. 431.
  26. ^ O'Brien, R.M.; Davies, J. (1990). "A new subspecies of Masked Booby Sula dactylatra from Lord Howe, Norfolk and Kermadec Islands" (PDF). Marine Ornithology. 18 (1): 1–7.
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  44. ^ a b c Priddel, David; Hutton, Ian; Olson, Samantha; Wheeler, Robert (2005). "Breeding biology of Masked Boobies (Sula dactylatra tasmani) on Lord Howe Island, Australia". Emu. 105 (2): 105–113. doi:10.1071/MU04028.
  45. ^ Robertson, Roger (1986). "Nesting of the Masked Booby on the Dry Tortugas, Florida: The First Record for the Contiguous United States". Colonial Waterbirds. 9 (1): 113–116. doi:10.2307/1521152. {{cite journal}}: More than one of |last1= and |last= specified (help); Unknown parameter |First2= ignored (|first2= suggested) (help)
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  51. ^ Marchant & Higgins 1990, p. 765.
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