Zinc mining: Difference between revisions

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Browse history interactively
← Previous editNext edit →
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
corrections
Added Methods of extraction, environmental impact, production information
Line 6: Line 6:
The world's largest zinc mine is the [[Rampura Agucha|Rampura Agucha Mine]] in [[Rajasthan]], [[India]].<ref name=trend>{{cite news |title=Industry Trend Analysis - Global Zinc Mining Outlook |url=https://mining.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Global-Mining-Zinc_Mining_Outlook-Fitch-Solutions-04-October-2018.pdf |accessdate=28 February 2020 |work=Mining.com |date=4 October 2018}}</ref> Major zinc mine operators include [[Vedanta Resources]], [[Glencore]], [[BHP]], [[Teck Resources]], [[Sumitomo Corporation|Sumitomo]], [[Compañía Minera Milpo|Nexa Resources]], [[Boliden AB]], [[China Minmetals]] and [[Newmont]].<ref name=trend/>
The world's largest zinc mine is the [[Rampura Agucha|Rampura Agucha Mine]] in [[Rajasthan]], [[India]].<ref name=trend>{{cite news |title=Industry Trend Analysis - Global Zinc Mining Outlook |url=https://mining.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Global-Mining-Zinc_Mining_Outlook-Fitch-Solutions-04-October-2018.pdf |accessdate=28 February 2020 |work=Mining.com |date=4 October 2018}}</ref> Major zinc mine operators include [[Vedanta Resources]], [[Glencore]], [[BHP]], [[Teck Resources]], [[Sumitomo Corporation|Sumitomo]], [[Compañía Minera Milpo|Nexa Resources]], [[Boliden AB]], [[China Minmetals]] and [[Newmont]].<ref name=trend/>


<br />
== History ==
== History ==
Zinc deposits have been exploited for thousands of years. The oldest zinc mine, at Zawar in Rajasthan, India has mine timbers giving [[Radiocarbon dating|radiocarbon dates]] of over 2,000 years [[Before Present|BP]]. Most of the zinc from Zawar was probably [[alloy|alloyed]] with copper to make [[brass]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Bunney |first1=Sarah |title=Zinc smelting began in India |url=https://books.google.com.au/books?id=a6OhXeTPJ8sC&pg=PA738 |accessdate=28 February 2020 |work=[[New Scientist]] |date=8 December 1983 |location=London |page=738}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Willies|first=Lynn|last2=Craddock|first2=P.T.|last3=Gurjar|first3=L. J.|last4=Hedge|first4=K.T.M.|date=1984|title=Ancient Lead and Zinc Mining in Rajasthan, India|journal=World Archaeology|volume=16|issue=2|pages=222–233|issn=0043-8243|jstor=124574|doi=10.1080/00438243.1984.9979929}}</ref>
Zinc deposits have been exploited for thousands of years, with the oldest zinc mine, located in Rajasthan, India established nearly 2000 years [[Before Present|BP]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Willies|first=Lynn|last2=Craddock|first2=P. T.|last3=Gurjar|first3=L. J.|last4=Hegde|first4=K. T. M.|date=October 1984|title=Ancient lead and zinc mining in Rajasthan, India|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00438243.1984.9979929|journal=World Archaeology|volume=16|issue=2|pages=222–233|doi=10.1080/00438243.1984.9979929|issn=0043-8243|via=}}</ref>.


Pure zinc production occurred in the 9th century AD.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kharakwal|first=J. S.|last2=Gurjar|first2=L. K.|date=2006-12-01|title=Zinc and Brass in Archaeological Perspective|journal=Ancient Asia|volume=1|pages=139|doi=10.5334/aa.06112|issn=2042-5937}}</ref> The isolation of zinc metal from its ore poses a unique challenge, because at the temperature zinc is released from its ore it vaporizes into a gas. Because of this, if the furnace is not air tight, the gaseous zinc will react with oxygen in the air to form zinc oxide.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Craddock|first=P.T.|date=January 1987|title=The early history of zinc|journal=Endeavour|language=en|volume=11|issue=4|pages=183–191|doi=10.1016/0160-9327(87)90282-1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Metals and mines : studies in archaeometallurgy|date=2007|publisher=Archetype Publications in association with the British Museum|others=La Niece, Susan, Hook, Duncan R., Craddock, P. T. (Paul T.), British Museum.|isbn=978-1-904982-19-7|location=London|pages=123–135|oclc=174131337}}</ref>
Pure zinc production occurred in the 9th century AD while, earlier in antiquity Zinc was primarily utilized in the alloying of copper to produce [[Brass]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Kharakwal|first=J. S.|last2=Gurjar|first2=L. K.|date=2006-12-01|title=Zinc and Brass in Archaeological Perspective|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5334/aa.06112|journal=Ancient Asia|volume=1|pages=139|doi=10.5334/aa.06112|issn=2042-5937}}</ref>. This is because the isolation of zinc metal from its ore poses a unique challenge. This is because at the temperature zinc is released from its ore it vaporizes into a gas, and if the furnace is not air tight, the gaseous Zinc reacts with the air to form zinc oxide<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Craddock|first=P.T.|date=January 1987|title=The early history of zinc|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0160932787902821|journal=Endeavour|language=en|volume=11|issue=4|pages=183–191|doi=10.1016/0160-9327(87)90282-1|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/174131337|title=Metals and mines : studies in archaeometallurgy|date=2007|publisher=Archetype Publications in association with the British Museum|others=La Niece, Susan., Hook, Duncan R., Craddock, P. T. (Paul T.), British Museum.|isbn=978-1-904982-19-7|location=London|oclc=174131337}}</ref>.

Metallic zinc smelting occurred in 9<sup>th</sup> century BC in India, followed soon by China 300 years later, and In Europe by 1738 AD<ref name=":0" />. The methods of smelting in China and India were most likely independently developed, while the method of smelting developed in Europe was likely derived by the Indian method<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Craddock|first=Paul Terence|date=2009-05-01|title=The origins and inspirations of zinc smelting|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-008-2942-1|journal=Journal of Materials Science|language=en|volume=44|issue=9|pages=2181–2191|doi=10.1007/s10853-008-2942-1|issn=1573-4803}}</ref><ref name=":0" />.

== Methods of extraction ==
Zinc is mined both at the surface and at depth. Surface mining of zinc typically produces ores of zinc oxide, while underground mining yields Zinc sulfide ores<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/technology/zinc-processing|title=Zinc processing - Ores|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=2020-02-13}}</ref>. Some of the common methods of Zinc mining are open pit mining, open stope, and cut and fill mining<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Grosh, Wesley A.|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/609238014|title=Zinc-ore mining and milling methods, Piquette Mining and Milling Co., Tennyson, Wis|date=1959|publisher=U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Mines|oclc=609238014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Storms, Walter R.|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/609239419|title=Mining methods and costs at the Kearney Zinc-Lead Mine, Central Mining District Grant County, N. Mex|date=1949|publisher=U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Mines|oclc=609239419}}</ref>:

'''Open pit mining''': This method of surface mining removes waste rock from above an ore deposit before it can be extracted. Once the waste is removed the ore is then mined. This is primarily done using track mounted shovels in larger scale operations, while in smaller scale operations, front loaders are typically used<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=U.S. Department of Agriculture|first=Forest Service|date=1995|title=Anatomy of a mine from prospect to production|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2737/int-gtr-35|location=Ogden, UT}}</ref>.

'''Fire Setting''': In antiquity, Zinc was mined underground using the fire setting method. This method required burning timber to be placed on the rock surface. The heat generated would be sufficient to crack the rock, and any moisture within would become vaporised and expand further cracking the rock. The separated rock would be easily removed either by hand or with the use of picks and shovels.<ref name=":1" />

'''Open stope mining''': This is a method of underground mining where ore bodies are completely removed leaving sizeable caverns (stopes) within the mine. Open stope mining leaves these caverns with no additional bracing or external support. What is used to support the cavern walls, are random pillars of ore which have not removed<ref name=":3" />.

'''Cut and Fill stooping''': A method of underground mining which removes ore from below the deposit. The stope is then filled with waste rock to replace the mined out ore to support the stope walls, and to provide an elevated floor for the miners and equipment to further extract ore from the deposit<ref name=":3" />.

== Production ==
The global production of mined zinc in 2019 was an estimated to be between 13 million tons or a 4% increase from 2018. With the increase primarily attributed to the increased output of zinc mines located in Australia and China<ref>{{Cite journal|last=International Lead and Zinc Study Group|first=|date=May 9, 2019|title=ILZSG SPRING 2019 MEETINGS/FORECASTS|url=http://www.mineralinfo.fr/sites/default/files/upload/ilzsg_may_2019_press.pdf|journal=ILZSG publications|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=U.S. Geological Survey|first=|date=January 2020|title=ZINC|url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2020/mcs2020-zinc.pdf|journal=Mineral Commodity Summaries|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref>.  

In 2020 production of zinc is expected to rise 3.7% to 13.99 million tons, with this increase caused by increased production of zinc generated by China and India<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=International Lead and Zinc Study Group|first=|date=October 28, 2019|title=ILZSG SESSION/FORECASTS|url=http://www.ilzsg.org/pages/document/p1/list.aspx?id=2&from=1&ff_aa_document_type=R&select=A|journal=ILZSG Publications|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref>.

In 2019, the global demand of zinc exceeded supply and resulted in an anticipated deficit of 178k tons, while in 2020 there is an expected surplus of 192k tons<ref name=":4" />.

Zinc producing countries ranked by their output for 2018 is as follows<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/our-natural-resources/minerals-mining/minerals-metals-facts/zinc-facts/20534#L2|title=Zinc facts|last=Canada|first=Natural Resources|date=2018-01-30|website=www.nrcan.gc.ca|access-date=2020-02-13}}</ref>:
{| class="wikitable"
|Country
|Output (thousand tonnes)
|-
|China
|5,670
|-
|South Korea
|866
|-
|India
|746
|-
|Canada
|698
|-
|Spain
|526
|-
|Australia
|490
|-
|Other Countries
|4139
|}

== Environmental Impact ==
Research conducted in the health of the benthic macroinvertibrate populations in the mining areas of southeastern Missouri have yielded a wealth of information on the effect of zinc mining and its effect on its local environment. Fish and Crayfish populations in localities near mining sites have been observed to be much lower that other populations found in reference sites; with the crayfish possessing metal concentrations within their tissues at a much greater concentration than their reference counterparts<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Allert|first=A. L.|last2=DiStefano|first2=R. J.|last3=Fairchild|first3=J. F.|last4=Schmitt|first4=C. J.|last5=McKee|first5=M. J.|last6=Girondo|first6=J. A.|last7=Brumbaugh|first7=W. G.|last8=May|first8=T. W.|date=April 2013|title=Effects of historical lead–zinc mining on riffle-dwelling benthic fish and crayfish in the Big River of southeastern Missouri, USA|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10646-013-1043-3|journal=Ecotoxicology|language=en|volume=22|issue=3|pages=506–521|doi=10.1007/s10646-013-1043-3|issn=0963-9292|via=}}</ref>. Other investigation into the effect of the health of mussel populations that reside near lead-zinc mining areas have found that the populations residing near mining areas possessed reduced biomass, and were less speciose than those found in their reference sites<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Besser|first=John M.|last2=Ingersoll|first2=Christopher G.|last3=Brumbaugh|first3=William G.|last4=Kemble|first4=Nile E.|last5=May|first5=Thomas W.|last6=Wang|first6=Ning|last7=MacDonald|first7=Donald D.|last8=Roberts|first8=Andrew D.|date=2015-02-10|title=Toxicity of sediments from lead-zinc mining areas to juvenile freshwater mussels (Lampsilis siliquoidea) compared to standard test organisms|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/etc.2849|journal=Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry|volume=34|issue=3|pages=626–639|doi=10.1002/etc.2849|issn=0730-7268|via=}}</ref>. Plant tissue have been reported to possess concentrations of metals 10-60% higher than reference<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Besser|first=John M.|last2=Brumbaugh|first2=William G.|last3=May|first3=Thomas W.|last4=Schmitt|first4=Christopher J.|date=2007-05-08|title=Biomonitoring of Lead, Zinc, and Cadmium in Streams Draining Lead-Mining and Non-Mining Areas, Southeast Missouri, USA|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10661-006-9356-9|journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment|language=en|volume=129|issue=1-3|pages=227–241|doi=10.1007/s10661-006-9356-9|issn=0167-6369}}</ref>. Macroinvertibrate assessments of localities immediately downstream of mining activity have observed a reduction in biotic condition 10-58% and with the locality possessing a impaired ability to support its populations when compared to other reference sites.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Poulton|first=Barry C.|last2=Allert|first2=Ann L.|last3=Besser|first3=John M.|last4=Schmitt|first4=Christopher J.|last5=Brumbaugh|first5=William G.|last6=Fairchild|first6=James F.|date=April 2010|title=A macroinvertebrate assessment of Ozark streams located in lead–zinc mining areas of the Viburnum Trend in southeastern Missouri, USA|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10661-009-0864-2|journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment|language=en|volume=163|issue=1-4|pages=619–641|doi=10.1007/s10661-009-0864-2|issn=0167-6369|via=}}</ref>.

Benthic macro-invertebrates such as crayfish and mussels represent a pathway for [[Biomagnification]], where the concentration of noxious materials within organisms at higher trophic levels as a result of consuming contaminated prey items. In addition, benthic macro invertebrate populations are frequently used as indicators of overall ecosystem health<ref name=":5" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mullins|first=Gary W.|last2=Lewis|first2=Stuart|date=November 1991|title=Macroinvertebrates as Indicators of Stream Health|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/info/10.2307/4449370|journal=The American Biology Teacher|volume=53|issue=8|pages=462–466|doi=10.2307/4449370|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hernandez|first=Maria Brenda M.|last2=Magbanua|first2=Francis S.|date=2016-12-01|title=Benthic Macroinvertebrate Community as an Indicator of Stream Health: The Effects of Land Use on Stream Benthic Macroinvertebrates|url=https://doaj.org/|journal=Science Diliman|language=en|volume=28|issue=2|pages=5–26|issn=0115-7809}}</ref>.

Assessment of soil samples from agricultural areas near a lead-zinc mining region in Guangxi, China have observed a "Serious pollution level" of zinc in the soils of the paddy fields relatively close to the mining area and a "Moderate pollution level" in the aerated fields relatively further away from the mining area<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Zhang|first=Chaolan|last2=Li|first2=Zhongyi|last3=Yang|first3=Weiwei|last4=Pan|first4=Liping|last5=Gu|first5=Minghua|last6=Lee|first6=DoKyoung|date=June 2013|title=Assessment of Metals Pollution on Agricultural Soil Surrounding a Lead–Zinc Mining Area in the Karst Region of Guangxi, China|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00128-013-0987-6|journal=Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology|language=en|volume=90|issue=6|pages=736–741|doi=10.1007/s00128-013-0987-6|issn=0007-4861|via=}}</ref>. The research also indicated that as a result of their Nemerow synthetic index assessment, the region under study is not fit for agricultural purposes<ref name=":6" />. Other investigation into the effect of zinc mining on agricultural soils in the Heilongjiang Province of china has found that the soils were "moderately contaminated" and a significant reduction in the population and diversity of the bacterial assemblages within the soils and reduced activity of soil enzymes<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Qu|first=Juanjuan|last2=Ren|first2=Guangming|last3=Chen|first3=Bao|last4=Fan|first4=Jinghua|last5=E|first5=Yong|date=November 2011|title=Effects of lead and zinc mining contamination on bacterial community diversity and enzyme activities of vicinal cropland|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10661-011-1900-6|journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment|language=en|volume=182|issue=1-4|pages=597–606|doi=10.1007/s10661-011-1900-6|issn=0167-6369|via=}}</ref>. The activity of the bacteria and enzymes aid plant matter in the uptake of nutrients, decompose decaying matter, and other ecosystem interactions<ref name=":7" />. Their reduction and impaired effectiveness result in poorer agricultural productivity.


==Zinc mines==
==Zinc mines==

Revision as of 19:59, 11 March 2020

Zinkgruvan zinc mine, Sweden

Zinc mining is the process by which mineral forms of the metal zinc are extracted from the earth through mining. A zinc mine is a mine that produces zinc minerals in ore as its primary product. Common co-products in zinc ores include minerals of lead and silver. Other mines may produce zinc minerals as a by-product of the production of ores containing more valuable minerals or metals, such as gold, silver or copper.[1] Mined ore is processed, usually on site, to produce one or more metal-rich concentrates, then transported to a zinc smelter for production of zinc metal.[2]

Global zinc mine production in 2019 was estimated to be 13 million tons. The largest producers were China (33%), Peru (11%), Australia (10%), India (6.2%), United States (6.0%), and Mexico (5.3%), with Australia having the largest reserves.[3]

The world's largest zinc mine is the Rampura Agucha Mine in Rajasthan, India.[4] Major zinc mine operators include Vedanta Resources, Glencore, BHP, Teck Resources, Sumitomo, Nexa Resources, Boliden AB, China Minmetals and Newmont.[4]


History

Zinc deposits have been exploited for thousands of years, with the oldest zinc mine, located in Rajasthan, India established nearly 2000 years BP[5].

Pure zinc production occurred in the 9th century AD while, earlier in antiquity Zinc was primarily utilized in the alloying of copper to produce Brass[6]. This is because the isolation of zinc metal from its ore poses a unique challenge. This is because at the temperature zinc is released from its ore it vaporizes into a gas, and if the furnace is not air tight, the gaseous Zinc reacts with the air to form zinc oxide[7][8].

Metallic zinc smelting occurred in 9th century BC in India, followed soon by China 300 years later, and In Europe by 1738 AD[6]. The methods of smelting in China and India were most likely independently developed, while the method of smelting developed in Europe was likely derived by the Indian method[9][6].

Methods of extraction

Zinc is mined both at the surface and at depth. Surface mining of zinc typically produces ores of zinc oxide, while underground mining yields Zinc sulfide ores[10]. Some of the common methods of Zinc mining are open pit mining, open stope, and cut and fill mining[10][7][11][12]:

Open pit mining: This method of surface mining removes waste rock from above an ore deposit before it can be extracted. Once the waste is removed the ore is then mined. This is primarily done using track mounted shovels in larger scale operations, while in smaller scale operations, front loaders are typically used[13].

Fire Setting: In antiquity, Zinc was mined underground using the fire setting method. This method required burning timber to be placed on the rock surface. The heat generated would be sufficient to crack the rock, and any moisture within would become vaporised and expand further cracking the rock. The separated rock would be easily removed either by hand or with the use of picks and shovels.[7]

Open stope mining: This is a method of underground mining where ore bodies are completely removed leaving sizeable caverns (stopes) within the mine. Open stope mining leaves these caverns with no additional bracing or external support. What is used to support the cavern walls, are random pillars of ore which have not removed[13].

Cut and Fill stooping: A method of underground mining which removes ore from below the deposit. The stope is then filled with waste rock to replace the mined out ore to support the stope walls, and to provide an elevated floor for the miners and equipment to further extract ore from the deposit[13].

Production

The global production of mined zinc in 2019 was an estimated to be between 13 million tons or a 4% increase from 2018. With the increase primarily attributed to the increased output of zinc mines located in Australia and China[14][15].  

In 2020 production of zinc is expected to rise 3.7% to 13.99 million tons, with this increase caused by increased production of zinc generated by China and India[16].

In 2019, the global demand of zinc exceeded supply and resulted in an anticipated deficit of 178k tons, while in 2020 there is an expected surplus of 192k tons[16].

Zinc producing countries ranked by their output for 2018 is as follows[17]:

Country Output (thousand tonnes)
China 5,670
South Korea 866
India 746
Canada 698
Spain 526
Australia 490
Other Countries 4139

Environmental Impact

Research conducted in the health of the benthic macroinvertibrate populations in the mining areas of southeastern Missouri have yielded a wealth of information on the effect of zinc mining and its effect on its local environment. Fish and Crayfish populations in localities near mining sites have been observed to be much lower that other populations found in reference sites; with the crayfish possessing metal concentrations within their tissues at a much greater concentration than their reference counterparts[18]. Other investigation into the effect of the health of mussel populations that reside near lead-zinc mining areas have found that the populations residing near mining areas possessed reduced biomass, and were less speciose than those found in their reference sites[19]. Plant tissue have been reported to possess concentrations of metals 10-60% higher than reference[20]. Macroinvertibrate assessments of localities immediately downstream of mining activity have observed a reduction in biotic condition 10-58% and with the locality possessing a impaired ability to support its populations when compared to other reference sites.[21].

Benthic macro-invertebrates such as crayfish and mussels represent a pathway for Biomagnification, where the concentration of noxious materials within organisms at higher trophic levels as a result of consuming contaminated prey items. In addition, benthic macro invertebrate populations are frequently used as indicators of overall ecosystem health[18][22][23].

Assessment of soil samples from agricultural areas near a lead-zinc mining region in Guangxi, China have observed a "Serious pollution level" of zinc in the soils of the paddy fields relatively close to the mining area and a "Moderate pollution level" in the aerated fields relatively further away from the mining area[24]. The research also indicated that as a result of their Nemerow synthetic index assessment, the region under study is not fit for agricultural purposes[24]. Other investigation into the effect of zinc mining on agricultural soils in the Heilongjiang Province of china has found that the soils were "moderately contaminated" and a significant reduction in the population and diversity of the bacterial assemblages within the soils and reduced activity of soil enzymes[25]. The activity of the bacteria and enzymes aid plant matter in the uptake of nutrients, decompose decaying matter, and other ecosystem interactions[25]. Their reduction and impaired effectiveness result in poorer agricultural productivity.

Zinc mines

Evolution of the extracted zinc ores grade in different countries.
See also: List of countries by zinc production

The world's ten largest zinc producing mines (by tonnes of zinc) in 2018 were:[4]

Name of the mine Operations
Rampura Agucha (India) underground zinc-lead-silver mine
Red Dog (USA) open-pit zinc-lead-silver mine
Antamina (Peru) open-pit copper-zinc-molybdenum mine
Mount Isa (Australia) George Fisher and Lady Loretta underground lead-zinc-silver mines
Peñasquito (Mexico) open-pit gold-silver-lead-zinc mine
San Cristóbal (Bolivia) open-pit silver-lead-zinc mine
McArthur River (Australia) open-pit zinc-lead-silver mine
Cerro Lindo (Peru) underground zinc-lead-copper-silver mine
Tara (Ireland) underground zinc-lead mine
Skorpion Zinc (Namibia) open-pit zinc mine

See also

References

  1. ^ Russell, Peter; Tharmanathan, Tharsika. "Zinc". Earth Sciences Museum. Waterloo, ON: University of Waterloo. Retrieved 27 February 2020.
  2. ^ "Processing". McArthur River Mine. Glencore. Retrieved 28 February 2020.
  3. ^ Tolcin, Amy C. (20 January 2020). "Zinc". Mineral commodity summaries 2020 (pdf). Reston, Virginia: U.S. Geological Survey. pp. 190–191. ISBN 978-1-4113-4362-7. Retrieved 28 February 2020.
  4. ^ a b c "Industry Trend Analysis - Global Zinc Mining Outlook" (PDF). Mining.com. 4 October 2018. Retrieved 28 February 2020.
  5. ^ Willies, Lynn; Craddock, P. T.; Gurjar, L. J.; Hegde, K. T. M. (October 1984). "Ancient lead and zinc mining in Rajasthan, India". World Archaeology. 16 (2): 222–233. doi:10.1080/00438243.1984.9979929. ISSN 0043-8243.
  6. ^ a b c Kharakwal, J. S.; Gurjar, L. K. (2006-12-01). "Zinc and Brass in Archaeological Perspective". Ancient Asia. 1: 139. doi:10.5334/aa.06112. ISSN 2042-5937.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  7. ^ a b c Craddock, P.T. (January 1987). "The early history of zinc". Endeavour. 11 (4): 183–191. doi:10.1016/0160-9327(87)90282-1.
  8. ^ Metals and mines : studies in archaeometallurgy. La Niece, Susan., Hook, Duncan R., Craddock, P. T. (Paul T.), British Museum. London: Archetype Publications in association with the British Museum. 2007. ISBN 978-1-904982-19-7. OCLC 174131337.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  9. ^ Craddock, Paul Terence (2009-05-01). "The origins and inspirations of zinc smelting". Journal of Materials Science. 44 (9): 2181–2191. doi:10.1007/s10853-008-2942-1. ISSN 1573-4803.
  10. ^ a b "Zinc processing - Ores". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2020-02-13.
  11. ^ Grosh, Wesley A. (1959). Zinc-ore mining and milling methods, Piquette Mining and Milling Co., Tennyson, Wis. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Mines. OCLC 609238014.
  12. ^ Storms, Walter R. (1949). Mining methods and costs at the Kearney Zinc-Lead Mine, Central Mining District Grant County, N. Mex. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Mines. OCLC 609239419.
  13. ^ a b c U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service (1995). "Anatomy of a mine from prospect to production". Ogden, UT. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  14. ^ International Lead and Zinc Study Group (May 9, 2019). "ILZSG SPRING 2019 MEETINGS/FORECASTS" (PDF). ILZSG publications.
  15. ^ U.S. Geological Survey (January 2020). "ZINC" (PDF). Mineral Commodity Summaries.
  16. ^ a b International Lead and Zinc Study Group (October 28, 2019). "ILZSG SESSION/FORECASTS". ILZSG Publications.
  17. ^ Canada, Natural Resources (2018-01-30). "Zinc facts". www.nrcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2020-02-13.
  18. ^ a b Allert, A. L.; DiStefano, R. J.; Fairchild, J. F.; Schmitt, C. J.; McKee, M. J.; Girondo, J. A.; Brumbaugh, W. G.; May, T. W. (April 2013). "Effects of historical lead–zinc mining on riffle-dwelling benthic fish and crayfish in the Big River of southeastern Missouri, USA". Ecotoxicology. 22 (3): 506–521. doi:10.1007/s10646-013-1043-3. ISSN 0963-9292.
  19. ^ Besser, John M.; Ingersoll, Christopher G.; Brumbaugh, William G.; Kemble, Nile E.; May, Thomas W.; Wang, Ning; MacDonald, Donald D.; Roberts, Andrew D. (2015-02-10). "Toxicity of sediments from lead-zinc mining areas to juvenile freshwater mussels (Lampsilis siliquoidea) compared to standard test organisms". Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. 34 (3): 626–639. doi:10.1002/etc.2849. ISSN 0730-7268.
  20. ^ Besser, John M.; Brumbaugh, William G.; May, Thomas W.; Schmitt, Christopher J. (2007-05-08). "Biomonitoring of Lead, Zinc, and Cadmium in Streams Draining Lead-Mining and Non-Mining Areas, Southeast Missouri, USA". Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 129 (1–3): 227–241. doi:10.1007/s10661-006-9356-9. ISSN 0167-6369.
  21. ^ Poulton, Barry C.; Allert, Ann L.; Besser, John M.; Schmitt, Christopher J.; Brumbaugh, William G.; Fairchild, James F. (April 2010). "A macroinvertebrate assessment of Ozark streams located in lead–zinc mining areas of the Viburnum Trend in southeastern Missouri, USA". Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 163 (1–4): 619–641. doi:10.1007/s10661-009-0864-2. ISSN 0167-6369.
  22. ^ Mullins, Gary W.; Lewis, Stuart (November 1991). "Macroinvertebrates as Indicators of Stream Health". The American Biology Teacher. 53 (8): 462–466. doi:10.2307/4449370.
  23. ^ Hernandez, Maria Brenda M.; Magbanua, Francis S. (2016-12-01). "Benthic Macroinvertebrate Community as an Indicator of Stream Health: The Effects of Land Use on Stream Benthic Macroinvertebrates". Science Diliman. 28 (2): 5–26. ISSN 0115-7809.
  24. ^ a b Zhang, Chaolan; Li, Zhongyi; Yang, Weiwei; Pan, Liping; Gu, Minghua; Lee, DoKyoung (June 2013). "Assessment of Metals Pollution on Agricultural Soil Surrounding a Lead–Zinc Mining Area in the Karst Region of Guangxi, China". Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. 90 (6): 736–741. doi:10.1007/s00128-013-0987-6. ISSN 0007-4861.
  25. ^ a b Qu, Juanjuan; Ren, Guangming; Chen, Bao; Fan, Jinghua; E, Yong (November 2011). "Effects of lead and zinc mining contamination on bacterial community diversity and enzyme activities of vicinal cropland". Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 182 (1–4): 597–606. doi:10.1007/s10661-011-1900-6. ISSN 0167-6369.


Stub icon

This article about mining is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zinc_mining&oldid=945096388"